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BROWN'S   SERIES 


OF 


English   Grammars 

THOROUGHLY    REVISED 

By   henry    kiddle.   A.M., 


LATE    Sl'PT.  OK    SCHOOLS    OF    NEW    YORK    CITY. 


A  S  the  Publishers  of  Brown's  Grammars,  we  take  pleasure  in  announcing 
that  these  Popular  Standard  Text-Books  have  been  thoroughly 
revised  and  adapted  to  the  present  educational  demands. 

THEIR    SUPERIORITY    CONSISTS    IN 

Practical    Language   Lessons. 

Clearness  and    Methodical   Arrangement. 

Fullness   of  Grammatical    Detail. 

Complete    Elaboration   in   all  the  Several    Parts. 

A    Logical   Accuracy  and    Perfectness   of    Definition. 

Forms  and  Formulas  of  Analysis,  Syntactical  Reso- 
lution and  Correction,  as  Exact  and  Exhaustive 
as  the    Demonstrations  of  Geometry. 

Definite   Presentation   of  the   Subject- Matter. 


correspondence  solicited. 


WILLIAM    WOOD    &    COMPANY,    Publishers, 

NEW  YORK. 


^^x-JiiSf^ - 

Cur.  Charles  tPerera 

BROWN'S  GRAMMARS. 


The    Standard    Authority   in   the   Correct    Use   of   the 
ENGLISH    LANGUAGE. 

The  School  Series  comprises: 

BROWN'S    LANGUAGE   LESSONS, 

170  pages. 

THE    FIRST  LINES  OF  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR, 

156  pages. 

THE  INSTITUTES  OF  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR, 

345  pages. 


A   VALUABLE    BOOK   OF    REFERENCE. 

THE    GRAMMAR    OF 

ENGLISH    GRAMMARS, 

With  an  Introduction,  Historical  and  Critical, 

BY 

GOOLD   BROWN. 

Tenth  Edition— Revised  and  Improved. 

WILLIAM    WOOD    &    COMPANY,    Publishers, 

NEW  YORK. 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2010  with  funding  from 

Open  Knowledge  Commons 


http://www.archive.org/details/humananatomyphysOOmayc 


HUMAN 
ANATOMY   PHYSIOLOGY 


AND 

xjvnTTT'lsn?. 


State  of  New  York, 

Department  of  Public  Instruction, 

Superintendent's  Office. 

Albany,  January  6th,  1896. 
Messrs.  William  Wood  and  Company, 

New  York  City. 

Gentlemen  : — I  have  examined  May's  "  Human  Anatomy,  Physiology,  and 

Hygiene"  with  exceeding  interest,  and  take  the  first  opportunity  of  informing 

you  that  in   my  judgment  it  fully  complies  with  the  requirements  of  Chapter 

1041  of  the  Laws  of  1895,  relating  to  temperance  instruction  in  the  schools 

of  the  State,  so  far  as  the  number  of  pages  and  the  arrangement  of  the  same  is 

concerned. 

Respectfully  yours, 

CHARLES    R.  SKINNER, 

State  Superintendent. 


ILLUSTRATIONS   PRINTED   IN   COLORS 


Wn^LIAM   WOOD    AND   COMPANY 
NEW  YORK 


HUMAN 
ANATOMY   PHYSIOLOGY 


AND 


HYGIENE 


WITH  SPECIAL  REFERENCE  TO   THE  EFFECTS 
OF  STIMULANTS  AND  NARCOTICS 


FOR   USE   IN   PEIMARY  AND  INTERMEDIATE   SCHOOLS 


BY 

CHARLES  H.  MAY,  M.D. 

CMef-of-Bye- Clinic  and  Instructor  in  Ophthalmology,  VanderMU  Clinic,  College  of 
Physicians  ancl  Surgeons,  Medical  Dept.,  Columbia  College,  N.  Y.;  Professor  of 
Diseases  of  the  Eye  and  Ear,   College  of  Physicians  and   Surgeons, 
Boston;  Asst.  Surgeon,  New  TorTc  Ophthalmic  and  Aural  Insti- 
tute ;  Asst.   Oculist,  Mt.  Sinai  Hospital,  N,  T.;   Fellow  of 
the    New    York,    Academy    of   Medicine,   etc.,    etc. 


THIRD   EDITION  REVISED 


ILLUSTRATIONS   PRINTED   IN   COLORS 


WILLIAM    WOOD   AND    COMPANY 
NEW  YORK 


c5^ 


CopTKiGHT,  1889, 1893,  and  1896,  by 
WILLIAM  WOOD  AND  COMPANY. 


PREFACE. 


In  the  following  pages  the  author  has  endeavored  to  pre- 
sent, in  as  simple  and  clear  a  manner  as  possible,  the  most  im- 
portant facts  relating  to  the  anatomy,  physiology,  and  hygiene 
of  the  human  body. 

Of  late  years  physicians  have  laid  great  stress  upon  the 
study  of  the  prevention  of  disease  ;  and,  keeping  pace  with 
this  improvement,  the  laity  have  become  better  informed  about 
matters  pertaining  to  the  care  of  the  body  than  formerly.  The 
great  utility  of  such  knowledge  has  led  to  the  enactment  of 
laws  in  New  York  and  other  States  making  provision  for  the 
study  of  physiology  and  hygiene  in  the  public  schools,  with 
special  reference  to  the  effects  of  stimulants  and  narcotics  upon 
the  human  system.  Such  legislative  provisions  are  very  grati- 
fying. Proper  instruction  to  children  on  these  subjects  must 
do  much  to  diminish  the  amount  of  sickness  and  raise  the 
general  standard  of  health. 

The  author  has  endeavored  to  use  the  simplest  terms  com- 
patible with  clearness.  A  certain  number  of  technical  terms 
are  unavoidable  ;  these  are  defined  in  the  glossary  at  the  end 
of  the  volume. 

The  lessons  will  be  made  more  interesting  and  valuable  if 
illustrated  by  the  various  tissues  obtainable  at  the  butchers' ; 
thus,  the  heart  of  a  calf  will  serve  nicely  to  show  the  general 
shape  and  arrangement  of  cavities  and  valves  in  the  human 


iv  PREFACE. 

heart.  In  the  same  way  other  organs  and  tissues  should  be 
utiHzed  by  the  teacher  to  elucidate  the  various  parts  of  the 
body.  The  skeleton  and  its  different  parts  should  be  before 
the  class  in  reciting  upon  the  bones. 

In  the  description  of  the  effects  of  stimulants  and  narcotics 
upon  the  human  body,  only  such  statements  have  been  made 
as  can  be  found  in  the  works  of  standard  authors  on  these 
subjects.  It  is  not  necessary  to  deviate  from  the  truth  in  order 
to  impress  children  with  the  great  amount  of  bodily  harm  and 
misery  which  the  extensive  indulgence  in  stimulants  and  nar- 
cotics causes. 

The  synopsis  given  at  the  end  of  each  chapter  is  intended  to 
be  of  use  in  reviews  and  in  guiding  the  teacher  in  a  systematic 
presentation  of  the  subject. 

CHARLES  H.    MAY,   M.D. 


THIRD  EDITIOK 

In  this  edition  the  author  has  made  some  desirable  changes 
and  additions.  A  number  of  the  illustrations  have  been  made 
even  finer  than  at  first.  It  has  also  been  thought  advisable  to 
devote  a  separate  chapter  to  the  consideration  of  the  effects  of 
stimulants  and  narcotics.  C.  H.  M. 

692  Madison  Avenue,  New  York. 


New  York  State  Edition. — In  conformity  with  "An  Act  to 
Amend  the  Consolidated  School  Law  Providing  for  the  Study  of 
the  Nature  and  Effects  of  Alcoholic  Drinks  and  other  Narcotics,  in 
Connection  with  rhysiology  and  Hygiene  in  the  PiTblic  Schools." 
Approved  June  15,  1895,  to  take  effect  August  1,  1895. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER    I. 
Introduction. 


The  Human  Body  the  Highest  Form  of  Living  Being — What  Hygiene 
Treats  of — What  Anatomy  Teaches  Us — What  we  Learn  by  the  Study 
of  Physiology — Differences  in  Meaning  of  Terms  Anatomy,  Physiol- 
ogy, and  Hygiene — Different  Forms  of  Animal  Life — Life  in  Plants 
— Differences  between  Plants  and  Animals —Organs — Functions — 
Subdivisions  of  the  Body — Tissues — Further  Subdivisions,  the  Cell, 
the  Fibre— Parts  of  the  Body— The  Head  and  Neck— The  Trunk  — 
The  Upper  Limbs — The  Fingers— The  Lower  Limbs — Synopsis  of 
Introduction — Questions  on  Introduction ,     13 

CHAPTER  n. 

The  Framework  or  Skeleton. 

Position  in  the  Higher  Animals— Uses  of  Bones:  Support,  Protection, 
Strength,  Motion — Number  of  Bones — Forms  of  Bones :  Long,  Short, 
Flat,  Irregular — Structure  of  Bone :  Surface,  Interior,  Periosteum, 
Spaces,  Color — Composition  of  Bone — Variations  in  Composition  in 
Early  and  in  Advanced  Life — Care  of  the  Skeleton :  Effects  of  Faulty 
Position,  Tight  Clothing,  Improperly-shaped  Shoes,  Stimulants  and 
Narcotics,  Poor  Health— Fracture  of  a  Bone — Parts  of  the  Skeleton : 
Head,  Trunk,  Upper  and  Lower  Limbs  —Bones  of  the  Head  :  Cranium 
and  Face — The  Cranium:  Frontal,  Parietal,  Occipital,  Temporal,  etc.; 
Ragged  Edges— The  Face:  Orbits;  Nose;  Nasal  and  Malar  Bones; 
Upper  and  Lower  Jaws —Mobility  of  the  Skull— Bones  of  the  Trunk 
— The  Spinal  Column  ;  Sacrum  and  Coccyx  ;  Canal  for  Spinal  Cord 
—The  Pelvis  — The  Hip-Bone  — The  Collar-Bone  —  The  Shoulder- 


VI  CONTENTS. 

Blade— The  Breast-Bone— The  Ribs:  True,  False,  Floating  — The 
Chest :  Boundaries  ;  the  Diaphragm — The  Bones  of  Upper  Limb — 
The  Humerus — The  Bones  of  the  Forearm  ;  Radius,  Ulna  —  The 
Bones  of  the  Wrist  and  Hand :  the  Wrist,  the  Palm,  the  Fingers — 
The  Bones  of  the  Lower  Limb— The  Femur  — The  Patella— The 
Bones  of  the  Leg  :  Tibia,  Fibula— The  Bones  of  the  Foot :  the  Heel, 
Instep,  Toes — Synopsis  of  Skeleton — Questions  on  the  Skeleton.     31 


CHAPTER  III. 

The  Joints. 

Definition — Uses — Subdivision — Immovable  Joints  —  Sutures  —  Slightly- 
Movable  Joints :  General  Arrangement,  Ligaments,  Varieties :  G-lid- 
ing,  Hinge,  Pivot,  Ball-and- Socket — Accidents  to  Joints — Synopsis 
of  Joints — Questions  on  the  Joints 41 

CHAPTER  IV. 

The  Muscles  and  Motion. 

Function  of  Muscles  —  Description  of  Muscle-tissue  —  Tendons  —  Fat  — 
Uses  of  Fat :  Warmth,  Protection,  Food,  Appearance  —  Kinds  of 
Muscle-tissue  —  Voluntary  Muscles  —  Involuntary  Muscles  —  Mixed 
Muscles — How  Muscles  Act — Influence  of  the  Brain  and  Nerves — 
Ordinary  Muscular  Movements  very  Complex — Groups  of  Muscles — 
Facial  Expressions— Number  of  Muscles— Shape  of  Muscles— Size  of 
Muscles— A  Few  Important  Muscles:  Biceps,  Triceps,  Pectoralis, 
Diaphragm— Tendon  of  Achilles— The  Care  of  Muscles— Exercise  : 
Necessity,  Amount,  Kind,  Proper  and  Improper— Effects  of  Alcohol 
and  Tobacco  on  Muscles— Changes  in  Muscle  by  Use  of  Alcohol- 
Synopsis  of  Muscles  and  Motion— Questions  on  Muscles  and  Mo- 
tion       47 

CHAPTER  V. 

Food  and  Drink. 

Necessity  for  Food  and  Drink — Essential  to  Life- Difference  in  Food  of 
Plants  and  of  Animals — Difference  in  the  Food  of  Different  Animals 
— Carnivorous  Animals — Herbivorous  Animals— Different  Kinds  of 


CONTENTS.  Vll 

Food  Required  by  Man— Fleshy  Food— Vegetable  Food— Starch — 
Greeu  Vegetables—Fat  and  Fatty  Food— Water — Tea  and  Coffee- 
Necessity  for  Combination  of  all  Forms  of  Food  and  Water— Some 
of  the  Simplest  Forms  of  Food — Meat  and  Fish — Bread— Milk: 
Cream,  Butter,  Cheese— Eggs — Variety  in  Food — Proper  Food — Meth- 
ods of  Cooking :  Boiling,  Stewing,  Frying,  Broiling,  Roasting,  Baking 
— Cautions  Regarding  Eating — Drinking-water — Dangers  of  Well- 
water — How  Poisoning  Occurs — How  Avoided — Synopsis  of  Food 
and  Drink— Questions  on  Food  and  Drink 63 


CHAPTEK  VI. 

Digestion. 

Definition— The  Various  Organs  of  Digestion— Alimentary  Canal — The 
Mouth— Teeth :  Temporary,  Permanent — Parts  of  Teeth — Structure 
of  Teeth— Names  of  Teeth— Care  of  the  Teeth— The  Salivary  Glands : 
Parotid,  Sublingual,  Submaxillary — Saliva— Effects  of  Chewing  Gum 
—The  Throat— The  Tongue— The  Gullet— The  Stomach  :  Descrip- 
tion, Pylorus,  Coats — Gastric  Juice — Gastric  Tubules — Pepsin — 
Function  of  Gastric  Juice — Uses  of  Stomach  :  Digestion,  Storehouse, 
Pulverizer — Stomachs  in  Certain  Lower  Animals — Effect  of  Tobacco 
on  Stomach — Effect  of  Alcohol  on  Stomach — Discovery  of  How  the 
Stomach  Acts— "  Heavy  "  and  "Light"  Food— The  Bowels:  Sub- 
divisions, Pylorus,  Duodenum,  Small  Intestine,  Large  Intestine,  At- 
tachment to  Backbone,  Coats — The  Peritoneum — Motion  of  Intes- 
tines— Projections  on  Inner  Surface  of  Intestines — The  Work  of  the 
Intestines  :  Digestion — Starchy,  Fatty,  Fleshy  Food — Openings  into 
Small  Intestines:  From  Pancreas,  From  Liver — The  Liver  and 
Gall-bladder :  Position,  Description — Uses  of  the  Liver  :  Bile,  Puri- 
fy Blood,  Remove  Impurities — Liver  Cells — Bile — Action  of  Bile — 
Purification  of  Blood  by  Liver — The  Liver  as  a  Storehouse  for 
Nourishment — The  Unhealthy  Liver :  Gout— The  Drunkard's  Liver 
— The  Pancreas:  Pancreatic  Juice — Uses  of  Pancreatic  Juice — 
Absorption — Method  of  Absorption  by  Blood-vessels — Lacteals — 
Habits  which  are  Injurious  to  Proper  Digestion :  Eating  too 
Quickly,  Eating  too  Much,  Eating  too  Many  Sweets  and  Sours, 
Chewing  Gum,  Ice-water  in  Large  Quantity,  Violent  Exercise  after 
Meals,  Severe  Brain-work  after  Meals,  Bathing  after  Meals,  Excite- 


Vni  CONTENTS. 

ment,  Alcoliolic  Drink,  Smoking — The  Spleen :  Description,  Posi- 
tion, Use,  Enlargement — Synopsis  of  Digestion — Questions  on  Diges- 
tion       74 


CHAPTEK  VII. 

The  Blood  and   the  Circulation — The   Heart  and  the  Blood- 
vessels. 

Importance  of  the  Blood — Appearance  of  the  Blood,  Color — Composition 
of  the  Blood :  Fluid,  Globules — Blood-globules  :  Number — Micro- 
scope— Red  Blood-globules— White  Blood-globules — The  Plasma — 
The  Blood  of  Other  Animals — Use  of  the  Red  Blood  globules — Use 
of  the  Plasma — Difference  between  the  Blood  in  Arteries  and  the 
Blood  in  Veins — Clotting  of  the  Blood — Value  of  the  Clotting  of 
Blood — The  Circulation :  How  Seen  in  the  Frog — The  Heart — Situa- 
tion of  the  Heart — Form  of  the  Heart — The  Pericardium — Cavities 
of  the  Heart,  Grooves,  Auricles,  Ventricles — Function  of  the  Heart — 
Frequency  of  the  Heart-beats — Course  of  the  Blood — Circulation 
through  the  Lungs — Changes  in  the  Blood  while  Passing  through  the 
Lungs  and  through  the  System  :  The  Aorta — Valves  of  the  Heart — 
The  Blood-vessels:  Arteries,  Veins,  Capillaries — The  Arteries — 
The  Pulse — The  Capillaries — The  Veins  :  Differences  between  Veins 
and  Arteries — Valves  of  the  Veins— Rapidity  of  the  Circulation  of 
the  Blood — Fainting:  Its  Treatment — Bleeding:  Its  Treatment, 
Hemorrhage — How  to  Have  a  Good  Circulation — Exercise — Effects 
of  Alcohol  upon  the  Heart  and  the  Circulation — Effect  of  Alco- 
hol upon  the  Arteries  ;  Apoplexy — Effects  of  Tobacco  upon  the 
Heart  and  Circulation,  "Tobacco  Heart" — The  Lymphatics,  Differ- 
ence between  them  and  Arteries,  Use,  Course  ;  Lacteals — Synopsis 
of  the  Blood  and  tlie  Circulation,  the  Heart  and  the  Blood-vessels — 
Questions  on  Chapter  VII 100 


CHAPTEE  VIII. 

The  Organs  of  Voice  and  Breathing. 

Definitions — Course  of  the  Inspired  Air — The  Organ  of  Voice — The  Lar- 
ynx— Form  and  Situation — Parts  of  Larynx— Triangular  and  Circular 
Pieces — The  Epiglottis — The  Vocal  Cords — Tlieir  Protection  of  the 


CONTENTS.  IX 

Windpipe— The  Vocal  Cords  in  Breathing — How  Sounds  are  Pro- 
duced— The  Varieties  of  Vocal  Sounds — Speaking — The  Trachea  or 
Windpipe — Situation  and  Form — The  Air-passage  and  the  Food- 
passage — Rings  of  the  Windpipe— Branching  of  the  Windpipe — The 
Bronchi — The  Lungs — Division  and  Situation — Shape  of  tlie  Lungs 
— Structure  of  the  Lungs — Subdivision  of  the  Bronchi — The  Air- 
vesicles — The  Pleura — Breathing  is  Involuntary — Movements  of  the 
Chest  in  Breathing — Mouth- breathing — Frequency  of  Breathing — 
Changes  which  Breathing  Produces  in  the  Blood  and  Tissues — 
Changes  Produced  in  the  Air  by  Breathing — The  Poisonous  Gases — 
Effects  of  Impure  Air — Purification  of  the  Air — How  Plants  Live  and 
Grow — Ventilation — Simple  Means  of  Ventilating — Absence  of 
Draughts — Necessity  for  Sunlight — Effect  of  Tight  Clothing  upon 
Breathing — The  Deformed  Chest — Effects  of  Tobacco  Smoke  upon 
the  Lungs  and  Throat — Synopsis  of  Organs  of  Voice  and  Respiration 
— Questions  on  Organs  of  Voic^e  and  Respiration 125 

CHAPTEE  XX. 

The  Heat  of  the  Body. 

Our  Body  may  be  Compared  to  a  Stove — Fuel — Combustion — Work,  the 
Result  of  the  Combustion  of  Fuel — Refuse,  another  Result  of  the 
Burning  of  Fuel — The  Results  of  the  Combustion  of  Food — Casting 
off  the  Refuse  Materials  from  the  Body— Food  and  Oxygen  Produce 
Heat  and  Work — Warm-blooded  and  Cold-blooded  Animals — Heat  of 
the  Human  Body  in  Health — Heat  of  the  Human  Body  at  the  Sur- 
face— Heat  of  the  Body  in  Sickness — Regulation  of  the  Bodily  Heat 
— Warm  Clothing — How  to  Keep  Warm  in  Winter — How  to  Keep 
Cool  in  Summer — How  the  Body  is  Kept  Cool  in  Summer — Effects  of 
the  Passage  of  Moisture  into  the  Air — Perspiration — Ice-water  in 
Summer — Sunstroke  — Effects  of  Cold — Synopsis  of  the  Heat  of  the 
Body — Questions  on  the  Heat  of  the  Body 143 

CHAPTER  X. 

Stimulants, 

Stimulants— Definition  and  Examples — Drugs  as  Stimulants — Water  and 
Food  as  Stimulants — How  Stimulants  Act — Stimulation  and  Depres- 
sion—Discovery of  Alcohol — Derivation  of  Name — Alcoholic  Drinks 


X  CONTENTS. 

— Non-Alcoliolic  Drinks — Properties  of  Alcoliol — Spirit  or  Spirit  of 
Wine — Uses  of  Alcoliol— Varnish — Tinctures — Preservation  of  Tissues 
— Alcohol  Thermometers — How  Alcohol  is  Made — Fermentation — 
Changes  produced  by  Fermentation— What  Caused  by — Minute  Liv- 
ing Bodies  in  the  Air — Germs— Varieties  of — Yeast — Fermentation  in 
Bread — Requisites  for  Fermentation — Acetous  and  Alcoholic  Fermen- 
tation—Acetous Fermentation — Vinegar — Alcoholic  or  Vinous  Fer- 
mentation— Distillation — Varieties  of  Alcoholic  Drinks — Malt  Liquors 
— Beer — Ale— Porter — Stout — Cider — Sweet  and  Hard — Wines — Va- 
rieties of  Wines — Red  and  White — Sweet  and  Dry — Effervescent — 
Home-made  Wines — Distilled  Spirits  or  Liquors — Varieties  of — 
Whiskey — Brandy — Rum  —  Gin — Absinthe  —Arrack — Cordials — Bit- 
ters, Tonics,  Elixirs,  and  Patent  Medicines — Artificially  Prepared  Al- 
coholic Drinks — General  Effects  of  Alcohol  and  Alcoholic  Drinks — 
When  Prescribed  by  Physicians — Injury  to  the  World  which  Alcohol 
Does — Not  Ordinarily  a  Food — Cause  of  Crime — Less  Used  as  a  Med- 
icine than  Formerly — Danger  of  Creating  Alcohol  Habit  when  Used 
as  a  Medicine — No  Nourishment  in  Alcoholic  Drinks  —  Effects 
of  Alcohol  Upon  the  Tissues  and  Functions  of  the  Body — Effects 
of  Alcohol  Upon  the  Stomach— On  the  Intestines — On  the  Liver — 
On  the  Muscles— On  the  Skeleton — On  the  Heart — On  the  Blood- 
vessels —  Apoplexy  —  Effects  of  Alcohol  upon  the  Skin  —  On  the 
Lungs — On  the  Nervous  System — On  the  Brain — On  the  Spinal 
Cord— On  the  Nerves — Drunkenness — Delirium  Tremens — Effects  of 
Alcohol  upon  the  Sight — On  the  Heat  of  the  Body — On  Muscular 
Strength  and  Power  of  Endurance — Training — Effect  of  Alcohol  upon 
the  Power  to  Resist  Disease  and  to  Recover  from  Accidents— Alcohol 
and  the  Expectancy  of  Life — Life  Insurance — Moral  Effects  of  Alco- 
liolic  Drink— The  Alcohol  Habit — Dipsomania — Alcohol  is  a  Costly 
Vice — Alcohol  and  (.'rime. 154 

Coffee,  Tea,  Cocoa,  and  Chocolate — Desirable  Stimulants — Coffee — Gen- 
eral Effects  of — Disagreeable  Effects  of — Tea — Cocoa  and  Choco- 
late      182 

Coca  Leaves  and  Cocaine— History  of — Effects  of — Cocaine— Effects  of 
— Cocaine  Poisoning — The  Cocaine  Habit. 184 

CHAPTER  XL 

Narcotics, 

Narcotics — Effects  of — Examples — Tobacco — Origin  of  Name — History  of 
Tobacco — Cultivation  of  Tobacco — Preparation  of  Tobacco — Compo- 


CONTENTS.  XI 

sition  of  Tobacco — Nicotine — Effects  of  Tobacco  upon  the  System — 
The  Tobacco  Habit — Tobacco  as  a  Medicine — Injurious  Effects  of  To- 
bacco upon  tlie  Adult — Smokers'  Sore  Tliroat — Tobacco  Heart — To- 
bacco Blindness — Tobacco  Nervousness — Injurious  Effects  of  Tobacco 
on  tlie  Young — Influence  of  Tobacco  upon  Muscular  Strength  and  the 
Power  of  Endurance — Cigarette  Smoking — Other  Objections  to  the 
Tobacco  Habit — Smoking  is  an  Expensive  Habit — Opium  and  Mor- 
pliine — Preparation  of  Opium — Physical  Properties  of  Opium  and 
Morphine  —  Opiates — Laudanum — Dover's  Powder — Paregoric — Ef- 
fects of  Opium  and  Morphine — Opium  and  Morphine  Poisoning — 
The  Opium  and  Morphine  Habit  —  Pangs  of — Results  of — Chloral 
or  Chloral  Hydrate — Appearance  of — Uses  of — The  Chloral  Habit 
— Effects  of —  Absinthe — Effects  of— The  Absinthe  Habit — Hashish 
— Chloroform — Uses  of — The  Chloroform  Habit 194 


CHAPTER  Xn. 

The  Nervous  System. 

Parts  of  the  System  Already  Described— Functions  Existing  in  both  Ani- 
mals and  Plants— Similarity  in  the  Structure  of  Plants  and  Animals 
— Absence  of  Nervous  System  in  Plants — Most  Perfect  Nervous  Sys- 
tem in  Man — Function  of  the  Nervous  System — Subdivisions  of  the 
Nervous  System — Brain — Spinal  Cord — Nerves — Examples  of  the 
Action  of  the  Nervous  System — Rapidity  of  Action  of  the  Nervous 
System — Coverings  of  the  Brain — Size  and  Weight  of  the  Brain — 
Divisions  of  the  Brain :  Cerebrum,  Cerebellum,  Medulla  —  The 
Cerebrum — Gray  and  White  Parts  of  the  Cerebrum — The  Cere- 
bellum— The  Medulla — The  Cranial  Nerves  :  Twelve  Sets— Functions 
of  the  Brain — Mind,  Will,  Thought,  Memory,  Intelligence — The 
Work  of  the  Brain — Reason  and  Judgment — Intelligence — Training 
the  Brain — The  Spinal  Cord — Interior  of  the  Spinal  Cord— The 
Spinal  Nerves — Kinds  of  Nerves  :  Sensation  and  Motion — Functions 
of  the  Spinal  Cord — Reflex  Action — Examples  of  Reflex  Action — 
Sleep — Amount  of  Sleep— Sleep  of  Children — Uses  of  Sleep— Time 
for  Sleep — Nervousness — Wakefulness — Effects  of  Alcohol  upon  the 
Nervous  System — Delirium  Tremens — Effects  of  Tobacco  upon  the 
Nervous  System — Effects  of  Coffee  and  Tea  upon  the  Nervous  Sys- 
tem— The  Sympathetic  System  of  Nerves — Synopsis  of  the  Nervous 
System — Questions  on  the  Nervous  System 210 


Xll  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

The  Senses. 

Definition  —Enumeration — Special  Senses. 

TJie  Sense  of  Touch  and  the  Skin — Thickness — Uses  of  Skin— Protection 
— The  Skin  as  the  Organ  of  Sensation — Throwing  Off  Water,  Salts, 
and  Poisonous  Matters — Regulating  the  Bodily  Warmth — Structure 
of  the  Skin — Scarf-Skin — True  Skin — Color  of  the  Skin— Markings  of 
Skin — Attachments  of  Skin — The  Perspiration-tubes — The  Pores — 
Perspiration — Sensible  and  Insensible  Perspiration — Uses  of  the  Per- 
spiration—The Oil-Tubes— The  Hair— The  Nails— Care  of  the  Skin 
—  The  Results  of  Uncleanliness  and  Filth- Bathing — Warm  Baths — 
Cold  Baths— Turkish  and  Russian  Baths — Clothing — Exercise — Cos- 
metics— Care  of  the  Hair — Care  of  the  Nails — Synopsis  of  Sense  of 
Touch  and  the  Skin — Questions  on  the  Sense  of  Touch  and  the 
Skin 231 

The  Nose  and  the  Sense  of  Smell — Functions  of  Nose — Breathing  Channel 
and  Smelling  Channel — Parts  of  the  Nose — Nerves  of  Smell — Sense 
of  Smell  in  Lower  Animals — Cold  in  the  Head — Use  of  Smell — Sweet 
Scents — Synopsis  of  Nose  and  Sense  of  Smell — Questions  on  Nose 
and  Sense  of  Smell 243 

The  Tongue  and  the  Sense  of  Taste — Structure  of  Tongue — Uses  of  Tongue 
— Uses  of  Sense  of  Taste — Abuse  of  Sense  of  Taste — Synopsis  of 
Tongue  and  Sense  of  Taste — Questions  on  Tongue  and  Sense  of 
Taste   246 

The  Eye  and  the  Sense  of  Sight — Protections  to  the  Eye— The  Eyelids — 
The  Eyebrows  and  Eyelashes — Parts  of  the  Eye — Interior  of  the  Eye 
— The  Iris — The  Muscles  of  the  Eye — How  we  See — Resemblance  of 
the  Eye  to  the  Photographer's  Camera — The  Nerves  of  the  Eye — 
Blindness — Images— The  Tears — Care  of  the  Eyes  :  Rest  for  the  Eyes, 
Fine  Print,  Direction  of  the  Light,  Reading  while  Lying  Down, 
Reading  in  the  Cars,  Contagious  Eye  Disease,  Stooping  in  Reading — 
Weak  Sight — Old  Sight — Synopsis  of  Eye  and  Sense  of  Sight — 
Questions  on  the  Eye  and  Sense  of  Sight 248 


CONTENTS.  XIU 

The  Ear  and  the  Sense  of  Hearing— ^^.Ti^  of  the  Ear— The  Outer  Ear— 
The  Middle  Ear— The  Bones  of  tlie  Ear— The  Eustachian  Tube— The 
Internal  Ear — The  Nerve  of  Hearing — Sound— How  we  Hear — Deaf- 
Mutes— Care  of  the  Ear— Synopsis  of  the  Ear  and  the  Sense  of  Hear- 
ing— Questions  on  the  Ear  and  the  Sense  of  Hearing 258 

Glossary.  .   . . . .  „ o .  ...o c  o .  = 265 

Index.   » „ , , » . , , .  o , . . , » . . » » » . . « » . .  <, .  o , . . . .  279 


CHAPTER  I. 
INTEODUCTION. 

1.  The  human  body  is  the  highest  form  of  living  being; 
consequently,  greater  care  is  required  to  keep  it  in  health 
and  to  ward  off  disease  than  is  the  case  with  the  lower  ani- 
mals. 

2.  Hygiene. — The  study  of  how  to  take  care  of  the  body 
and  how  to  prevent  disease  is  called  Hygiene.  It  is  a  very  im- 
portant subject.  "An  ounce  of  prevention  is  worth  a  pound 
of  cure  "  is  an  old  saying,  and  is  certainly  a  true  one.  If  we 
wish  to  avoid  sickness  we  must  keep  our  bodies  healthy.  In 
order  to  know  how  to  do  this,  we  must  learn  about  the  things 
around  us  which  are  harmful  and  poisonous,  so  as  to  avoid 
them  ;  we  must  become  acquainted  with  what  is  good  and  what 
is  improper  in  our  food,  what  are  bad  habits  to  be  avoided, 
and  also  the  injurious  effects  of  drink  containing  alcohol,  and 
of  tobacco  and  other  narcotics.  All  these  things  Hygiene 
teaches  us. 

3.  Bat  if  we  are  to  remember  them,  we  must  understand 
how  and  why  it  is  that  certain  things  and  habits  are  injurious  ; 
and  to  do  this  intelligently,  we  must  know  something  aboat 
the  structure  of  our  bodies,  and  the  manner  in  which  they  per- 
form their  work — that  of  living. 

4.  Anatomy. — The  study  of  the /on?i  and  structure  of  the 
different  parts  of  the  body  is  called  Anatomy. 

5.  Physiology.— The  study  of  how  ive  live  is  called  Phys- 
iology. It  explains  how  we  digest  our  food,  how  our  blood 
circulates,  how  Ave  breathe,  grow,  and  move,  and  perform  the 


14  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 

many  actioDS — some    simple,   some    veiy   difficult — which   are 
necessary  to  life.     It  is  a  very  interesting  subject. 

6.  These  three  branches — anatomy,  physiology,  and  hy- 
giene— naturally  go  together.  To  exjolaiu  their  differences,  let 
us  take  an  easy  example  :  Suppose  a  man  wishes  to  be  an 
engineer  upon  a  locomotive.  To  perform  his  duties  well  there 
are  many  things  connected  with  the  locomotive  which  he  must 
understand.  In  the  first  place,  he  must  have  a  knowledge  of 
the  different  parts  of  which  it  is  built.  This  would  correspond 
to  the  study  of  anatomy  in  the  human  being.  Again,  he  must 
understand  how  the  locomotive  works — what  causes  the  wheels 
to  move,  how  steam  is  produced,  and  how  to  regulate  the 
speed.  This  we  would  liken  to  the  study  of  physiology  in  the 
human  being.  Finally,  such  an  engineer  must  be  acquainted 
with  the  proper  care  of  his  locomotive — what  fuel  to  use,  how 
to  keep  it  clean,  and  other  things  to  prevent  it  from  getting 
out  of  order.  Similar  knowledge  applied  to  the  human  body, 
hygiene  gives  us. 

7.  We  have  been  making  use  of  the  words  life  and  liv- 
ing beings ;  it  is  well  to  undersfand  exactly  what  is  meant  by 
these.  There  are  a  great  man;y  different  forms  of  life.  The 
human  being  represents  the  highest  form,  while  some  very 
small  animals,  that  cannot  be  seen  except  with  the  microscope, 
belong  to  the  very  lowest  classes.  Both  are  examples  of  ani- 
mal life.  In  ordinary  drinking-water  we  can  see  certain  of  the 
lowest  forms  of  life  if  we  look  through  a  drop  of  such  water 
that  has  stood  for  some  time.  These  animals  are  so  small  that 
they  must  be  magnified  hundreds  of  times  before  we  can  see 
them  ;  they  are  perfectly  innocent,  and  do  no  harm  when  we 
drink  them. 

8.  Tiiere  is  also  life  in  plants,  but  it  is  different  from  that 
in  animals.  Plants  grow,  and  also  breathe.  A  few  of  them 
have  the  power  of  moving  some  of  their  parts,  as  the  Venus 
Fly-trap.  The  leaves  of  this  singular  plant  have  a  part  at 
the  top  which  opens  and  shuts  just  like  a  steel-trap.     These 


INTRODUCTION.  15 

trap-like  ends  of  the  leaves  are  usually  open  when  the  sun 
shines,  and  whenever  a  lly  alights  upon  one  of  them  and 
brushes  against  the  bristles  that  grow  from  its  edges,  the  trap 
suddenly  closes,  capturing  the  insect  and  usually  soon  depriv- 
ing it  of  life. 

9.  Differences  between  Plants  and  Animals. — The 
main  differences  between  plants  and  animals  are  : — 

(1.)  Plants  exist  upon  water,  gases,  and  mineral  matters 
found  in  the  earth.  This  would  not  be  enough  to  support 
life  in  animals. 

(2.)  Plants  consist  of  different  materials  from  those  form- 
ing animals. 

(3.)  Plants  have  no  organs  of  digestion,  such  as  possessed 
by  animals. 

10.  Organ. — The  word  organ,  applied  to  the  human  body, 
means  a  part  which  performs  some  special  work.  For  instance, 
the  stomach  is  one  of  the  organs  of  digestion,  because  it  helps 
to  prepare  the  food  so  that  the  blood  can  be  nourished  by  it ; 
the  eye  is  the  organ  of  sight ;  the  tongue  is  the  organ  of 
taste. 

11.  Function. — The  special  work  which  any  organ  of  the 
body  does  is  called  its  function.  Thus,  it  is  the  function  of  the 
ear  to  hear,  of  the  heart  to  propel  the  blood  through  the  blood- 
vessels. 

SUBDIVISIONS  OF  THE  BODY. 

12.  We  may  divide  the  body  in  many  different  ways : 

(1.)  Into  different  parts  of  the  body  ;  such  as  the  head, 
the  trunk,  the  limbs.     These  again  may  be  subdivided. 

(2.)  We  may  further  divide  these  into  the  different  tis* 
sues.  A  tissue  is  one  of  the  simple  forms  of  material  of 
which  the  different  parts  of  the  body  are  composed  ;  thus, 
the  finger  consists  of  bone,  fat,  muscle,  arteries,  veins, 
nerves,  skin— all  these  are  tissues. 

(3.)  If  we  subdivide  still  further,  and  again  and  again, 


16 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 


until  we  come  to  the  very  smallest  part,  we  liave  the  cell., 
the  Jibre,  and  a  substance  between  these,  which  may  be  jelly- 
like or  may  be  hard.  The  entire  body  is  formed  of  mil- 
lions of  these  cells  and  fibres  and  this  substance  between 
them.  They  are  all  very  small  and  we  must  use  a  strong 
microscope  to  see  them.  It  is  only  when  millions  of  them 
are  gathered  together  that  they  form  a  mass  large  enough 
to  be  seen  with  the  unaided  eye.  The  cells  are  of  dif- 
ferent shapes,  but  usually  they  are  more  ©r  less  rounded. 
The  fibres  are  thread-like. 


Fig.  1. — Some  Different  Forms  of  Cells. 


Fig.  2. — A  Collection  of  Fibres,  Separated. 


PARTS   OF   THE  BODY. 


13.  The  human  body  can  be  divided  into : 

(1.)  The  head  and  neck. 
(2.)  Tlie  trunk. 
(3.)  The  limbs. 

14.  The  Head  and  Neck. — The  head  has  a  large  cavity 
for  the  brain,  and  smaller  ones  to  receive  the  eyes,  ears,  nose, 
and  tongue.  It  is  divided  into  the  croum  (the  toj)  part),  and 
the /ace. 


INTKODUCTION. 


17 


Scalp. 

Forehead. 

li  ridge  of  Nose, 


Calf  of  Leg 


Heel  . . 
Sole... 


Ankle. 

A.rch.  or  Instep  of  Foot. 


Fig.  3.— The  Names  of  the  Different  Parts  of  the  Body. 


18  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 

15.  The  Trunk  is  the  part  of  the  body  between  the  neck 
and  upper  limbs  above,  and  the  lower  limbs  below.  It  has 
tivo  large  cavities :  an  upper  one,  called  the  ched  or  thorax,  for 
the  heart  and  lungs ;  and  a  lower  one,  called  the  abdomen,  for 
the  organs  of  digestion. 

16.  The  Limbs  are  attached  to  the  trunk. 

The  upper  limbs  start  from  the  shoulders.   There  are  two, 
each  consisting  of  an  arm,  a  forearm,  and  a  hand.     Where  the 
upper  limb  joins  the  trunk  is  the  shoulder  and   the  armpit. 
Where  the  arm  and  forearm  meet,  is  the  elbow.     Where  the 
forearm  and  hand  meet  is  the  lorist.     The  front  of  the  hand  is 
called  the  pa/???,  the  opposite  side,  the  back  of  the  hand. 
Th^  fingers  are  named  as  follows  : — 
First— Thumb. 
Second — Index  finger. 
Third— Middle  finger. 
Fourth — Ring  finger. 
Fifth— Little  finger. 
The  lower  limbs  start  from  the  hip.     Each  consists  of  a 
tliigh,  a  leg,  and  a  foot.     Where  the  lower  limb  joins  the  trunk 
is  the  hip  and  the  groin.     Where  the  thigh  and  leg  meet  is  the 
knee.     Where  the  leg  and  foot  meet  is  the  ankle.     The  under 
surface  of  the  foot  is  called  the  sole,  the  upper  surface  the  arch 
of  the  foot,  or  instep). 


SYNOPSIS. 

Hygiene — Care  of  body  and  prevention  of  disease. 
Anatomy— Form  and  structure  of  parts  of  body. 
Physiology — How  we  live. 
Life — 1.  Animals. 

2.   Plants. 
Differences  between  j^lants  and  animals  : 

1.  Plants    exist    upon    water,    gases,    and    mineral    matters 
only. 


IKTRODUCTION.  19 

2.  Plants  consist  of  different  materials  from   those  forming 
animals. 

3.  Plants  have  no  organs  of  digestion. 
Organ — A  part  which  performs  some  special  work. 
Function — The  special  work  which  an  organ  does. 
Subdivisions  of  the  body  : 

a.  Structure — Tissues,  simple  forms  of  material : 

1.  Cell,  2.  Fibre.  3.  Substance  between. 

h.  Parts  : 

1.  Head  and  neck.  3.  Upper  limb. 

a.  Crown.  a.  Arm. 

h.  Face.  h.  Forearm. 

c.  Hand. 

2.  Trunk.  4.  Lower  limb. 

a.  Thorax.  a.  Thigh. 

5.  Abdomen.  h.  Leg. 

c.  Foot. 


QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  is  hygiene  ?  2.  What  are  some  of  the  tilings  which  it 
teaches  us  ?  3.  What  is  anatomy  ?  4.  What  does  physiology  teach 
us  ?  5.  Mention  some  of  the  things  which  it  explains.  6.  Explain 
the  differences  between  these  three  branches  :  Anatomy,  physiology, 
and  hygiene.  7.  Is  there  more  than  one  form  of  animal  life?  8. 
Give  examples.  9.  Do  plants  live  ?  10.  How  do  we  know  this  ? 
11.  Do  plants  ever  have  the  power  to  move  any  of  their  parts  ?  12. 
Give  an  example  of  this.  13.  Mention  the  differences  between 
plants  and  animals.  14.  What  is  an  oi'gan  of  the  body  ?  15.  Give 
examples  of  organs.  16.  What  is  meant  by  the  word  "function?" 
17.  Give  examples  of  this.  18.  How  do  we  divide  the  body?  19. 
Give  an  example  of  a  part  of  the  body.  20.  What  is  a  tissue  ?  21. 
Give  an  example.  22.  What  are  the  very  smallest  subdivisions  of 
the  body  called  ?  23.  What  is  a  cell  ?  24.  What  is  a  fibre  ?  25. 
Name  the  three  main  parts  of  the  body.  26.  Into  what  parts  can 
the  head  be  divided  ?  27.  What  is  the  trunk  and  what  large  cavi- 
ties does  it  contain  ?  28.  Name  the  different  parts  of  the  upper 
limb.     29.  Name  the  different  parts  of  the  lower  limb. 


20 


AK ATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIEKE. 


— Back  of  Skull  (Occiput) 

J  Bones  of  Spinal  Column 
I       forming  the  Neck, 

Collar-bone  (Clavicle). 

J  Upper  End  of  Bone  of  Arm  form- 

''^'j  ' '  I  ing  the  Shoulder-joint. 

.^_ Bone  of  Arm  (Humerus). 

, Hip-bone. 

Inner  Bone  of  Forearm  (Ulna). 

Outer  Bone  of  Forearm  (Radius). 

J  Upper  end  of  Thigh-bone 

I     forming  the  Hip-joint. 

. Bones  of  the  Wrist  (Carpus). 

Bones  of  the  Hand  (Metacarpus). 

j  Bones  of  the  Fingers  (Pha- 
/y  ...    J      langes  of  the  Fingers). 

,,*;jj Knee-pan  (Patella). 

i\  \  .    .  . .  Inner  Bone  of  Leg  (Tibia). 

s  I  Outer  Bone  of  Leg  (Fibula). 

I*  !■::: 

■i-     ^  .^ Bones  of  Ankle  (Tarsus). 

^ Bones  of  Foot  (Metatarsus). 

f  ^^__^^^-^-  ._ j  Bones  of  Toes  (Pha- 

~~  ■■--'^\  I    langes  of  the  Toes). 

Fig.  4.— The  Skeleton,  Viewed  in  Front. 


CHAPTER   11. 
THE   FRAMEWOEK   OE   SKELETON. 

17.  The  Skeleton  is  the  name  given  to  all  the  bones  in 
the  body  taken  together.  These  form  a  framework  around 
which  all  the  soft  parts  of  the  body  are  arranged,  just  as  the 
walls  and  rafters  of  a  building  support  the  rest  of  it.  In  man, 
and  in  all  the  higher  animals,  the  skeleton  is  on  the  inside,  and 
the  soft  parts  are  placed  around  this  bony  framework  ;  in  some 
animals,  such  as  the  crab  and  the  lobster,  the  hard  shell  on  the 
outside  corresponds  to  the  skeleton. 

18.  Uses  of  Bones. — The  uses  of  bones  are  : — 

(1.)  To  give  the  body  support  and  to  keep  it  erect.  This 
we  see  especially  in  the  spinal  column  and  in  the  lower 
limbs. 

(2.)  To  pr-otect  soft  parts  which  would  otherwise  be  easily 
injured.  The  brain,  for  instance,  is  enclosed  in  a  sort  of 
oval  box  formed  by  a  number  of  flat  bones  joined  together ; 
and  in  the  same  waj^,  the  heart  and  lungs  are  protected 
from  injury  by  the  bones  which  form  the  chest. 

(3.)  To  give  great  strength  and  hardness,  and  at  the 
same  time  leave  the  part  elastic,  as  in  the  wrist  and 
foot.  ,In  the  foot,  for  instance,  there  are  many  small 
bones  joined  together  in  such  a  way  that  though  they  are 
strong  enough  to  bear  the  weight  of  the  body,  they  are 
still  elastic  enough  to  allow  us  to  jump  upon  the  foot 
without  injury. 

(4.)  Lastly,  bones  are  necessary  for  the  purpose  of  mo- 
tion ;  for  walking  and  running,  for  grasping  objects,  and 


22 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 


Bone   of  Forehead 

(Frontal). 
Upper  End  of  Bone  | 

of  Nose  (Nasal),     f 
Cheek  Bone  (Malar) . 

Upper  Jaw 

Lower  Jaw / 


The      Breast-Bone  I 
(Sternum). 


Part  of  the  Spinal] 

Column  forming  ', 

the  Lower   Part  f 

of  the  Back.  J 

Upper  Part  of  the  / 

Hip-bone. 
Upper  End  of  the  ^ 
Thigh-bone,  form-  ;- 
iug  the  Hip-joint.  ) 


Bone      of      Right ) 
Thigh  (Femur),     f 


Right      Knee  ■ 
(Patella). 


pan 


Inner      Bone       of  / 
Right  Leg  (Tibia).  ( 


Lower  End  of  "1 
Bones  of  Right  j 
Leg,  forming  An-  ( 
kle-joint.  J 


_,  J  Back  of  Skull  (Oo 
ciput). 


Bones     of    Spinal 

Column  forming 

the  Neck. 

f  Upper  End  of  Bone 

'      of  Arm,  forming 


the 
joint. 


Shoulder- 


Bone  of  Arm  (Hu- 
merus). 

One  of  the  Ribs 
(Eighth). 


. . .  The  Elbow-joint. 

j  Outer      Bone       of 
(  Forearm  (Radius). 

Inner  "   Bone      of 
Forearm  (Ulna). 

(  Lower  End  or  Tip 
•<      of     the     Spinal 
(      Column. 
.The  Wrist  (Carpus). 
Bones      of     Hand 

(Metacarpus). 
Thumb. 

Index  Finger. 


Bone      of        Left 

Thigh  (Femur). 


The  Knee-joint. 


Outer  B(me  of  Left 
Leg  (Fibula). 


Bones  of  Arch 
Foot  (Tarsus) 


of 


_  .  .Bone  of  the  Heel. 
Bones  of  the  Toes 
(Phalanges       of 
the  Foot). 


FiG.  5.— The  Skeleton.  Viewed  from  the  Side,  with  Outline  of  the  Body. 


THE   FRAMEWORK    OR   SKELETON. 


23 


for  perforiniDg  tlie  many  actions  required  of  us.  The 
thigh-bones  and  the  bones  of  the  leg,  for  instance,  are 
necessary  for  walking.  Bones  serve  as  points  of  attach- 
ment for  muscles,  and  are  moved  through  the  action  of 
these  muscles ;  they  simply  carry  out  the  will  of  the 
muscles,  and  these  again  are  directed  by  our  nerves  and 
brain. 
19.  Number  of  Bones. — There  are  two  hundred  bones  in 
the  human  body. 


Fig.  6. — The  Upper  End  of  the  Thigh-bone,  where  it  Forms  Part  of  the  Hip-joint,  Sawed 
through  Lengthwise,  Showing  the  Porous  and  Spongy  Nature  of  Bone  in  Its  Interior,  and 
also  the  Commencement  of  the  Central  Canal  for  the  Marrow. 


20.  Forms  of  Bones. — Bones  vary  very  much  in  form  and 
size.  Some  of  them  are  long,  as  the  thigh-bones  (Fig.  21)  ; 
others  are  small  and  short,  such  as  the  eight  bones  which  form 
the  wrist  (Fig.  20) ;  others  are  flat,  as  for  example  the  bones 
forming  the  skull  (Fig.  11)  ;  finally  others  are  of  very  odd  and 
irregular  forms,  such  as  the  bones  which  form  the  spinal 
column  (Fig.  16). 


24  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 


'C%^^? 


f¥'^J^^"^-  ^  ^5^ 


r^% 


^^l^^-< 

»    /->.  -v 


Fig.   7.— a  Thin  Slice  of  Bone,   Cut 
Crosswise,  as  Seen  under  the  Microscope. 


21.  Structure  of  Bone. — Each  bone  is  surrounded  by  a 
very  hard  layer  on  the  outside,  within  which  the  bone  is  looser 

and  porous,  having  a  large  num- 
ber of  small  spaces  through  which 
the  blood-vessels  ran  (Fig.  7). 
The  long  bones,  as  those  of  the 
arm,  thigh,  and  fingers,  are  hol- 
lowed out  in  the  centre,  and  in 
this  canal  we  find  a  fatty  sub- 
stance called  'marrow.  This  hol- 
lowing out  of  the  bone  makes  it 
lighter  and  also  stronger  than 
it  would  otherwise  be.  Bones  are  closely  covered  by  a  tough 
membrane  called  i\ie  periosteum,  which  gives  additional  strength 
and  protection  to  them.  They  are 
of  a  pinkish  color  during  life,  on  ac- 
count of  the  small  blood-vessels  run- 
ning through  them  ;  when  dead,  the 
color  of  bone  changes  to  white. 

22.  If  we  take  a  thin  slice  of  bone, 
and  look  at  it  under  the  microscope, 
we  shall  see  a  large  number  of  dark 
spots,  with  small  lines  running  from 
them  (Fig.  7).  They  correspond  to 
the  minute  spaces  which  exist  even 
in  the  densest  bone,  and  show  that 
it  is  never  entirely  solid. 

23.  Composition  of  Bone. — 
Bone  is  composed  of  two  i:)arts  of  a 
hard  mineral  substance  containing  a     fig.  8.— The  outer  Bone  of  the 

.      n       1        /•    1 .  -IP  L    Leer,   Tied   into   ii   Knot    after    the 

great    deal    OI    lime,   and    or    one    part    Hard  Mineral  Matter  has  lK;eu  Dis- 
»  n,  i       •    1    T1  11-  rm        solved  out  by  Acid. 

OI  a  sort  material  like  gelatin.     Ine 

mineral  substance  gives  the  bone  its  hardness  ;  the  soft  mate- 
rial makes  it  tough  and  elastic.  To  prove  this  we  have  only 
to  dissolve  out  the  mineral  substance  by  a  weak  acid,  and  we 


THE   FRAMEWORK    OR   SKELETON.  26 

find  that  we  can  now  bend  the  bone  in  any  direction  because 
it  has  lost  its  hardness  ;  if  it  be  long  enough,  we  can  even  tie 
it  in  a  knot  without  breaking  it,  as  is  shown  in  Fig.  8. 

24.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  we  put  the  bone  into  the  fire,  the 
gelatine  will  be  driven  off,  and  then  the  bone  will  have  the 
same  form  as  before,  but  will  be  very  brittle  and  crumble  very 
easily. 

25.  In  the  baby,  the  bones  consist  very  largely  of  a  soft 
material,  called  cartilage.  This  is  the  reason  why  the  baby 
cannot  stand,  or,  if  it  is  allowed  to  stand  too  soon,  the  bones 
of  the  legs  may  become  bent,  because  they  are  not  yet  hard 
enough  to  bear  the  weight  of  the  body.  Gradually,  as  the 
baby  grows,  the  hard  matter  is  added.  In  young  persons  the 
bones  are  always  softer  than  in  the  aged,  and  therefore  do  not 
break  so  easily.  In  old  persons  there  is  less  gelatine  and  a 
larger  proportion  of  the  brittle  mineral  substance  than  in 
youth ;  hence  their  bones  are  more  brittle  and  are  more 
easily  broken,  or,  as  the  surgeons  would  say,  are  more  liable 
io  fracture. 

26.  Care  of  the  Skeleton. — If  we  wish  to  have  erect  and 
graceful  bodies  when  we  grow  up,  we  must  take  care  of  them 
while  we  are  young.  It  is  while  we  are  young  that  the  bones 
are  still  soft  and  easily  shaped.  We  should  always  remember 
to  stand  and  sit  erect,  with  the  chest  thrown  forward  and  the 
shoulders  back ;  in  this  way  we  may  avoid  stooping  and  round 
shoulders. 

27.-  We  should  not  wear  any  clothing  which  is  too  tight.  How 
often  do  we  see  misshapen  chests  in  girls  because  they  have 
worn  dresses  which  were  too  tight.  Fig.  72  is  the  picture  of  a 
chest  wdiich  has  become  deformed  through  tight  dressing.  If 
we  compare  it  with  Fig.  18,  w^iich  represents  a  healthy  chest, 
w^e  cannot  fail  to  notice  the  difference. 

28.  We  must  be  careful  to  get  shoes  of  proper  size ;  for  if 
i\\ej  are  too  small  or  too  pointed  our  feet  will  become  deformed, 
our  toes  bent  and  crooked,  and  painful  corns  and  bunions  will 


26 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 


result.  Such  deformities  are  shown  in  Fi^-.  10.  Girls  should 
not  be  allowed  to  wear  high  heels,  as  they  crowd  the  foot  into 
the  front  part  of  the  shoe,  thus  making  the  toes  overlap. 
Shoes  with  high  heels  do  not  su^^port  the  weight  of  the  body 
projDerly,  because  they  throw  the  Upper  part  of  the  body  for- 
ward. Another  objection  to  high  heels  is  the  danger  of  acci- 
dents from  falling  and  of  spraining  the  ankle. 

29.  Fracture  of  a  Bone. — When  a  bone  is  broken  the  ac- 
cident is  quite  serious,  and  is  called  a  fracture.  The  doctor  is 
called  and  he  sets  the  bone,  that  is,  he  brings  the  two  broken 


Fig.  9.— a  Natural  Foot. 


Fig.  10. — A  Foot  which  has  Become  De- 
foiniod  and  Affected  with  Corns  and  Bunions 
as  a  Ilesnlt  of  Tight  and  Ill-fitting  Shoes. 


ends  of  the  bone  together,  and  keeps  them  in  position  by  band- 
aging them  to  a  piece  of  thin  board  so  that  they  cannot  be 
moved  ;  then  a  soft  material  is  formed  between  the  two  pieces, 
which  gradually  hardens  and  joins  the  two  ends  together.  If 
properly  taken  care  of,  a  broken  bone  becomes  united  again  in 
several  weeks,  and  is  then  as  strong  as  it  was  before.  If  we 
happen  to  break  a  bone  we  must  remember  to  keep  as  quiet  as 
possible  until  the  doctor  arrives,  so  as  not  to  move  the  injured 
part,  and  thus  make  matters  much  worse. 

30.  Effects  of  Stimulants  and  Narcotics.— Drinks  con- 
taining alcohol,  and  the  use  of  tobacco,  may  prevent  our  bones 


THE   FllAMEWORIv    OR   SKELETON.  27 

from  growing  to  their  natural  size.  Many  bo3'S  smoke  cigar- 
ettes because  tliey  tbink  it  makes  tbem  look  big  and  manly. 
This  is  a  mistake.  No  one  will  consider  tliem  so  because  they 
smoke,  and  the  habit  often  results  in  preventing  them  from 
growing  to  their  natural  size.  The  bones  of  drunkards  break 
more  easily  than  do  those  of  others. 

31.  If  we  wish  to  be  large  and  finely  built  we  must  try  to 
preserve  our  health,  for  when  the  health  suffers  the  growth  of 
the  bones  is  interfered  with. 

Having  studied  about  bones  in  general,  let  us  now  examine 

THE   DIFFERENT  PARTS   OF   THE  SKELETON. 

32.  We  may  divide  the  skeleton  into  four  parts  : — 
(1.)  Bones  of  the  head. 

(2.)  Bones  of  the  trunk. 

(3.)  Bones  of  the  upper  limbs. 

(4.)  Bones  of  the  lower  limbs. 

33.  Bones  of  the  Head. — The  bones  of  the  head  taken 
together  form  the  skull  (Figs.  11,  12,  and  13).  The  skull  is 
made  up  of  twenty-two  bones.  Eight  of  these  are  joined 
together  at  the  upper  and  back  part,  forming  an  oval  box  of 
bone  in  which  the  brain  is  contained,  and  called  the  cranium. 
The  front  part  of  the  skull,  formed  by  the  remaining  fourteen 
bones,  is  called  i\iQ  face. 

34.  The  Cranium. — The  portion  of  the  cranium  which 
forms  the  forehead  is  called  the  frontal  bone  (1,  Fig.  13).  In 
the  lower  animals,  such  as  the  dog  and  the  cat,  the  forehead  is 
very  low  and  slanting  ;  in  the  negro  race  it  is  less  slanting  ; 
while  in  the  white  races  it  is  almost  upright.  Usually  the 
prominence  of  the  forehead  indicates  the  develoj^ment  of  the 
brain  ;  and  in  those  who  have  spent  much  time  in  study  it  is 
usually  very  prominent.  Behind,  the  cranium  is  formed  by  the 
occipital  bone  (3,  Fig.  13).  Above,  two  bones,  known  as  the 
parietal  (2,  Fig.  13),  join  together  to  form  the  top  of  the  skull. 


28  ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 

On  the  side  of  the  head,  just  below  where  the  hah'  ends,  is  a 
spot  called  the  temple ;  the  bone  which  forms  this  part  of  the 
skull  is  called  the  temporal  bone  (4,  Fig.  13). 

35.  Most  of  the  bones  of  the  cranium  have  ragged  edges  look- 
ing like  the  teeth  of  a  saw  (Figs.  12  and  13),  and  when  the 
bones  are  joined  these  teeth  fasten  the  bones  together  just  as  if 
3'ou  spread  out  the  fingers  of  one  hand  and  then  put  them  in  the 


Fig.  1 1.— The  Skull,  Front  View. 

spaces  between  the  fingers  of  the  other.  In  this  way  the  bones 
are  firmly  united,  and  yet  there  is  space  between  the  edges  so 
that  they  can  give  a  little.  This  space  is  very  important,  for  if 
these  boues  could  not  give  at  all,  every  blow  upon  the  head 
would  injure  the  soft,  delicate  brain  within.  The  muscles,  skin, 
and  hair  on  the  head  also  serve  to  break  the  force  of  blows. 

86.  The  Face. — Looking  at  the  skull  in  front  (Fig.  11)  we 
see   two  large   openings  just  below   the   forehead,   which  are 


THE   FRAMEWOKK    OR   SKELETON. 


29 


Fig.  12.— The  Human  Skull,  Looked  at  from  the  Side. 


Fig.  la— The   Bones  of  the   SkiUl    Separated.     1,    Frontal;    2,    Parietal;    3,    Occipital, 
4,  Temporal ;  5,  Nasal ;  6,  Malar  ;  7,  Upper  Jaw  ;  8,  Lachrymal ;  9,  Lower  Jaw. 


30 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 


known  as  the  orbits  and  receive  the  eyes.  Below  and  between 
these  is  tlie  triangular  opening  of  the  nose,  bounded  above  by 
two  small  bones  (5,  Fig.  18)  called  the  imsal  bones.     To  the 

outer  side  and  below  the  orbits 


are  the  bones  which  form  the 
prominence  of  the  cheeks,  and 
are  called  the  malar  bones  (6, 
Fig.  13).  At  the  low'est  part 
of  the  face  are  the  two  jaivs, 
the  upper  (7,  Fig.  13)  and  the 
lower  (9,  Fig.  13).  The  upper 
jaw  is  firmty  joined  to  the  rest 
of  the  skull ;  the  lower  jaio  re- 
sembles a  horseshoe  in  shape, 
and  is  separate  from  the  rest 
of  the  skull,  though  connected, 
of  course,  during  life,  to  the 
sides  of  the  face  by  strong 
bands  and  muscles.  Each  jaw 
has  a  circular  row  of  teeth, 
about  wliich  more  will  be  said 
in  the  chaj^ter  on  Digestion. 
Between  these  two  rows  of  teeth 
is  the  mouth. 

37.  The  skull  rests  upon  the 
upper  end  of  the  spinal  col- 
umn and  is  very  movable,  so 
that  it  can  be  bent  forward  or 
backward,  or  from  side  to  side, 
and  can  be  turned  in  any  direc- 
tion. 

38.  Bones  of  the  Trunk. — The  bones  of  the  trunk  are: 
the  bones  forming  the  spinal  column,  the  hi^o-bone,  the  collar- 
bone, tlie  shoulder-blade,  the  breast-bone,  and  the  ribs. 

39.  The    Spinal    Column. — This   is   the   row  of  bones 


.&>■ 


Pig.  14.— The  Spinal  Pig.  15.— The  Spinal 
Column,  as  Seen  Column,  a.s  Seen 
from  Front.  from  the  Side. 


THE    FIlAMEWOllK    OH   SKELETON.  31 

whicli  exteiJcLs  from  the  skull  above  to  the  lower  limbs  below. 
Tliere  are  tbirty-tliree  of  these  bones  piled  one  upon  another ; 
but  in  the  grown  person  tliere  are  fewer,  because  the  lowest 
nine  bones  unite  so  as  to  form  but  two  ;  of  these  five  form  the 
upper  one,  called  the  mcrum,  and  four  unite  to  form  the  tip  of 
the  spinal  column,  called  the  coccyx.     There  are  thus  really 
but  twenty-six  separate  bones  in  the  spinal  column.     Each  of 
these  twenty-six  bones  is  called  a   vertebra,  and  all  of  them 
taken  together  are  known  as 
the  vertehrce.    The  spinal  col- 
umn is  often  called  the  hack- 
honey  on  account  of  its  extend- 
inof  alon"'  the  middle  of  the 
back.    The  vertebrae  are  con- 
nected by  circular  plates  of 
gristle,  or  cartilage,  and  by 
fibres.    This  cartila^'e  and  the 
fibres    are    elastic,    and    thus 

it   is    that   our   backbone   is  'W^ 

very  movable — we  can  bend 
it  in  any  direction  or  twist  it 

because  the  cartilage  gives.  ^ 

This  also  explains  why  it  is 
that  at  night  we  are  a  trifle 

.  .  Fig.  16. — Three   Veitebrse   from  the   Lower 

shorter   than  m  the  morning,    Part  of  the  Splnal  column,  separated. 

for  the  weight  of  the  body  has 

caused  these  plates  of  cartilage  between  the  vertebrse  to  be 
compressed  slightly,  while  after  a  rest  during  the  night,  they 
regain  their  usual  thickness.  There  is  an  opening  in  each  of 
the  vertebrae,  and  when  they  are  all  in  position,  these  openings 
connect  and  form  a  canal,  the  spinal  canal,  which  runs  all 
through  the  backbone.  This  canal  holds  the  delicate  spinal 
cord,  from  which  nerves  emei'ge  through  small  openings  on 
each  side  of  the  spinal  coluum.  At  the  upper  end  of  the  spinal 
canal  it  communicates  with  the  cavity  of  the  skull  by  means  of 


32  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 

a  large  oval  opening,  through  which  the  spinal  cord  and  the 
brain  are  directly  continuous.  If  you  run  your  finger  along  the 
middle  of  the  back,  you  can  feel  projecting  points ;  these  are 
the  tips  of  the  vertebrae. 

40.  The  Hip-bones  {H,  Fig.  21  and  Fig.  17)  are  the  two 
large  and  strong  bones  which  are  placed  on  each  side  of  the 
lower  end  of  the  spinal  column,  forming  with  it  a  sort  of  basin 
which  is  called  the  pelvis.     On  the  outer  side  of  each  hip-bone, 


Fig.  17. — The  Pelvis,  formed  by  the  Lower  End  of  the  Spinal  Column  and  the  Hip  bones. 

at  about  its  middle,  will  be  noticed  a  deep,  round  depression  ; 
in  this  fits  the  upper  end  of  the  thigh-bone. 

41.  The  Collar-bone,  or  Clavicle  (Figs.  4  and  19,  G),  is 
the  curved  bone  which  we  feel  at  the  upper  part  of  the  chest  in 
front,  being  connected  with  the  breast-bone  at  its  inner  end. 

42.  The  Shoulder-blade,  or  Scapula  (Fig.  19,  B),  is  the 
large  triangular  bone  which  we  feel  at  the  upper  part  of  the 
chest  behind.  It  lies  behind  the  upper  ribs.  At  its  outer 
angle  is  a  round  depression  into  which  the  upper,  ball-like  end 
of  the  bone  of  the  arm  fits. 

43.  The  Breast-bone,  also  called  the  sternum  (Fig.  19,  S)j 


THE   FRAMEWORK    OR   SKELETON. 


33 


is  a  flat  bone,  broad  above  and  gradually  tapering  toward 
its  lower  end.  It  forms  a  strong  guard  to  the  front  of  the 
chest.     Along  its  edges  the  ribs  are  attached  on  each  side. 

44.  The  RibSa — There  are  twenty-four  ribs,  twelve  on  each 
side.  They  are  long,  slender,  curved  bones,  which  form  the 
outer  boundary  of  the  chest.  They  are  very  elastic.  All  the 
ribs  are  joined  behind  to  the  vertebrae  of  the  back.  The  first 
seven  are  attached  to  the  breast-bone  in  front,  and  are   called 


Fig.  is.— The  Chest,  or  Thorax. 

true  ribs  ;  the  last  five  are  not  attached  to  the  breast-bone 
in  front,  and  are  called  false  ribs ;  the  upper  three  of  these, 
namely,  the  eighth,  ninth,  and  tenth,  are  connected  with  carti- 
lage in  front,  but  the  last  two  are  entirely  free  in  front,  and 
are  called  floating  ribs. 

45.  The  Chest,  or  Thorax  (Fig.  18). — It  has  already  been 
explained  that  this  is  the  large  cavity  just  below  the  neck  which 
serves  to  hold  the  heart  and  lungs.  These  organs  are  of  great 
importance,  and  are  nicely  boxed  in  by  the  bones  we  have  just 


34  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 


\llv- 


— ;■ 

/ 


-B 


—A 


studied  ;  namely,  the  breast-bone  in  front,   the  ribs  on   each 
side,  the  collar-bone  above,  and  the  backbone  behind.     There 

are,  of  course,  spaces  between 
these  different  bones,  but  in 
the  living  body  they  are  filled 
with  muscles.  A  flat  sheet  of 
muscle-tissue  also  bounds  the 
chest  below  and  separates  it 
from  another  cavity,  situated 
just  below  it,  the  abdomen. 
This  muscular  partition  is 
called  the  diajjhragm. 

46.  Bones  of  the  Upper 
Limb. — These  are:  the  bone 
of  the  arm  (humerus)  ;  the  two 
bones  of  the  forearm  (radius 
and  ulna)  ;  and  the  small  bones 
forming  the  hand. 

47.  The  Bone  of  the  Arm 
is  a  single  bone,  known  as  the 
humeruft.  It  is  a  strong  bone 
and  extends  from  the  shoulder 
to  the  elbow.  Its  upper  end 
has  an  enlargement,  shaped 
like  a  ball,  which  fits  into  the 
cup-shaped  depression,  seen  at 
the  outer  angle  of  the  shoulder- 
blade. 

48.  The  Bones  of  the 
Forearm. — There  are  two 
bones  in  the  forearm,  an  outer, 
the  radium,  and   an  inner,  the 

Fig.  10. — The  Bones  of  the  Upper  l,iinb.  ,              m,                        ■,          i     •  i     i 

S,    Hreast-boiie  (Sternum):    C.   Collar-bone  lUnQ.       T hcy  arC  plaCCd  Sltlc  by 

(Clavicle):  7i,  Shoulder-blade  (Scapula) ;  ^',  -n        ji                          i      i.                 xi 

Bone  of  Arm(Hnu.erus)  :7';  Bones  of  For..-  Side,   tllC    SpaCC    bctweCU    tliem 

arm  (Radius,  Ulna) ;  IC  Bones  of  Wrist ;  //,  i   ,  •  .    ,    ^411^  i    „,:i\^    „    ,../->»»-. l.i.or^r. 

Bo»es  of  Hand.  beiug  iilled  witii  a  membrane 


THE    FRAMEWORK    OR   SKELETON. 


35 


and    Hand. — There   are 
The  hand  may  be  divided 


i  I 


and  muscles.  They  extend  from  the  elbow  to  the  wrist.  In 
twisting  the  forearm  the  radius  revolves  around  the  ulna,  which 
is  the  less  movable  of  the  two. 

49.  The  Bones  of  the  Wrist 
twenty-seven  bones  in  each  hand. 
into  three  parts  :  The  ivrlat,  or  car- 
pus;  i\ie  palm,  ov  metacajy us  ;  and 
i\\Q  fingers,  ov  phalanges.  The  wrist 
is  the  most  solid  part  and  is  made 
up  of  eight  small  bones,  more  or 
less  rounded  or  cubical  in  shape, 
closely  held  together  by  tough 
bands.  This  arrani^ement  serves  to 
make  the  wrist  very  strong  and 
still  very  light.  The  bones  form- 
ing the  p)alni  of  the  hand  are  five 
in  number.  Eacli  finger  has  three 
bones,  the  end  of  one  being  joined 
to  that  of  the  other,  except  the 
thumb,  which  is  shorter  and  has 
but  two  such  phalanges ;  this  ar- 
rangement of  the  bones  of  the  fin- 
gers allows  them  to  move  very 
dexterously. 

50.  Bones  of  the  Lower 
Limb. — These  comprise  the  thigh- 
bone (femur),  the  bones   of   the   leg       Fig  20.— The  Bones  of  the  Wrlst  and 

'  Hand.     Above  is  also  seen  the  lower 

(tibia  and  fibula),    the    knee-pan    (m-    ends  of  the   radius   and   ulna,  taking 
'  part  in  forming  the  wrist-joint. 

tetla),  and  the  bones  01  the  foot. 

51.  The  Thigh-bone,  or  Femur,  is  the  largest  and  strong- 
est bone  in  the  body,  and  is  surrounded  by  more  muscle  than 
any  other  bone.  Where  it  is  attached  to  the  hip-bone  it  has  a 
large  spherical  part  called  its  head,  and  this  forms  an  angle  with 
the  rest  of  the  bone  by  a  part  called  the  neck.  Below,  the  thigh- 
bone  joins  with  the  bones  of  the  leg  and  with  the  knee-pan. 


36 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 


52.  The    Knee-pan,  or  Patella, 

is  the  small,  round,  flattened  bone 
which  can  be  felt  at  the  knee.  It 
serves  as  a  protection  to  the  joint, 
and  often  saves  it  from  injury  in  falls 
and  blows. 

53.  The  Bones  of  the  Leg. — 
There  are  two  bones  in  each  leg.  The 
inner  bone  is  the  shorter  and  stronger 
of  the  two,  and  is  called  the  tihia. 
The  outer  bone  is  longer  and  more 
slender;  it  is  called  the  fibula.  These 
two  bones,  placed  side  by  side,  extend 
from  the  knee  to  the  ankle. 

54.  The  Bones  of  the  Foot. — 
Each  foot  is  formed  by  twenty-six 
bones,  one  less  than  in  the  hand. 
Seven  of  these  form  the  solid  back 
part  of  the  foot,  called  the  tarsus, 
which  includes  the  heel ;  five  form  the 
arch  or  instep,  also  known  as  the  met- 
atarsus ;  and  the  remaining  fourteen 
form  the  toes  or  phalanges.  Thus,  it 
will  be  seen,  that  there  are  as  many 
bones  in  the  toes  as  in  the  fingers ; 
but  the  toes  are  much  less  movable, 
being  simply  intended  for  support  of 

Fig.  21,  —  the  body  and  for  walking ;  however, 
the  Lower  whcu  tlicy  are  trained  to  do  other 
lower  end  of  thiugs,  tlicy  may  become  almost  as 
Column  (Sa-  uimblc  as  the  fingers  are.  The  heel  is 
cyx) ;  //,  the  tlic  most  soHd  part  of  the  foot  and  the 
th?TMgh-  strongest.     The  sole  of  the  foot,  be- 

bone  fFemur) ;    K,  the  Knee-pan    .  j  i        i        i  -\  i.^       l  j? 

(Patella);  i.  the  i5ones  of  the  Leg  twceu  the  hccl  and  the  toes,  forms  an 
l.TtheFott."''''"'"^'  ""' ''"" ""'""  arch  at  the  inner  border  of  the  foot; 


\^. 


^ 


THE   FRAMEWORK    OR  SKELETON. 


87 


which  arch  breaks  the  force  of  jumps  from  heights.  If  we  are 
compelled  to  jump  from  a  height,  there  is  the  least  disagree- 
able effect  and  danger  to  the  body  if  we  alight  on  our  toes,  or 
just  behind  the  toes,  upon  the  soft  cushion  known  as  the  hall 
of  the  foot,  for  when  we  reach  the  ground  upon  the  heel,  the 
shock  is  transmitted  through  the  entire  body,  and  gives  rise  to 
a  very  disagreeable  sensation,  and  j)ossibly  even  to  injury. 


SYNOPSIS. 


Position — 1.  Internal   in    higher   animals.      2. 

External  in  some  of  lower  animals. 
Uses  of  the  bones  :  1.  Snx^porfc  to  rest  of  body. 
2.  Protection  to  delicate  organs.    3.  Strength 
and   hardness.      4.     Motion,    by   serving   as 
points  of  attachment  for  muscles. 
Number  of  Bones  :  Two  hundred. 
Forms  of  Bones  :  1.  Long.    2.  Short.    3.  Flat. 

4.  Irregular. 
Structure  of  Bone  :  ] .  Outer  dense  layer.  2.  In- 
terior porous  and  light.  3.  Central  canal 
filled  with  marrow  in  long  bones.  4.  Blood- 
vessels pass  through  it,  giving  pink  color 
during  life.  5.  Covered  by  membrane  (xDeri- 
osteum) . 
Composition  of  Bone : 

1.  Animal  matter — About  one-third  in  amount. 

Larger  proportion  in  early  life. 
Gives  toughness  and  elasticity. 
2.  Mineral  matter — About  two-thirds  in  amount. 

Larger  proportion  in  advanced  life. 
Gives  rigidity. 
Care  of  the  Skeleton  : 

1.  Avoid   faulty    jDOsitious,   to   jn-eveut   stooping   and  ronnd 
shoulders. 

2.  Avoid  tight  clothing,  to  prevent  deformed  chests. 


38  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 

3.  Avoid  faulty  shoes,  to  prevent  deformities  of  the  feet,  corns, 
bunions,  and  accidents. 

4.  Extensive  indulgence  in  stimulants  and  narcotics  (alcohol 
and  tobacco)  may  prevent  bones  from  growing  to  natural  size. 

5.  When  general  health  suffers,  growth  of  bones  is  inter- 
fered with. 

Fracture  of  a  Bone  : 

1.  "Setting"  the  bone. 

2.  To  jDrevent  further  injury,  the  broken  j)art  should  be  kept 
quiet  until  the  doctor  arrives. 

3.  Method  of  healing  by  material  binding  the  two  ends  to- 
gether. 

Parts  of  the  skeleton  : — 

1.  The  Head: 

a.  Cranium — 1.  Frontal. 

2.  Parietal. 

3.  Occipital. 

4.  Temporal,  etc. 

b.  Face — 1.  Nasal. 

2.  Malar. 

3.  Upper  jaw. 

4.  Lower  jaw,  etc. 

2.  The  Trunk  : 

a.  Spinal  column  (composed  of  33  vertebrae). 

h.  Chest  (formed  by  vertebrae,  sternum,  clavicle,  and  ribs;. 

c.  Ribs — 1.  True. 

2.  False  (including  two  floating  ribs). 

d.  Collar-bone  (Clavicle). 

e.  Shoulder-blade  (Scapula). 

f.  Breast-bone  (Sternum). 

g.  Pelvis    (formed  by  lower  end  of  sj)inal  column   and 
hip-bones. 

3.  The  UpiDer  Limb  : 

a.  Bone  of  arm  (humerus). 

b.  Bones  of  forearm — 1.  Radius. 

2.  Ulna. 

c.  Bones  of  hand — 1.  Wrist  (Carpus). 

2.  Palm  (Metacarpus). 

3.  Fingers  (Phalanges). 


THE    FRAMEWOIlK    OR   SKELETON.  39 

4.  The  Lower  Limb  : 

a.  Bone  of  thigli  (Femur). 

b.  Knee-pan  (Patella). 

c.  Bones  of  the  leg — 1.  Tibia. 

2.  Fibula. 

d.  Bones  of  foot — 1.   Heel  (Tarsus). 

2.  Arch  (Metatarsus). 

3.  Toes  (Phalanges). 


QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  is  meant  bj  the  word  "skeleton?"  2.  How  does  the 
skeleton  of  a  crab  and  lobster  differ  from  tliat  of  man  ?  3.  What  are 
the  uses  of  bone  ?  4.  How  many  bones  are  there  in  the  human 
body  ?  5.  Mention  the  different  forms  of  bones.  G.  Which  jiart  of 
the  bone  is  the  hardest  ?  7.  How  does  the  inner  part  of  the  bone 
differ  from  the  outer  layer  ?  8.  What  is  marrow  ?  9.  Of  what  sub- 
stances is  bone  composed  ?  10.  How  can  you  show  that  bone  is 
made  up  of  these  two  substances  ?  11.  How  do  the  bones  of  a  baby 
differ  from  those  of  a  middle-aged  man  ?  12.  How  do  the  bones  of 
an  old  man  differ  from  those  of  a  younger  man  ?  13.  Tell  something 
about  the  care  of  the  skeleton.  14.  Why  is  it  necessary  to  sit  and 
to  stand  erect  ?  15.  What  haj^pens  when  we  wear  our  clothing  too 
tight  ?  16.  What  is  a  fracture  ?  17.  What  effect  may  alcohol  and 
tobacco  have  upon  our  skeleton  ?  18.  What  effect  does  smoking 
have  upon  the  size  of  boys  ?  19.  Will  the  growth  of  our  bones 
take  place  properly  if  our  health  is  poor?  20.  Into  what  four  dif- 
ferent parts  can  we  divide  the  skeleton  ?  21.  What  are  the  bones 
of  the  head  taken  together  called?  22.  What  is  the  cranium  and 
how  many  bones  join  to  form  it  ?  23.  How  are  the  bones  of  the 
cranium  united  ?  24.  Where  is  the  frontal  bone  ?  25.  What  does 
the  i)rominence  of  the  forehead  show  ?  26.  Where  are  the  orbits  ? 
27.  What  is  peculiar  about  the  lower  jaw  ?  28.  Name  the  bones  of 
the  trunk.  29.  What  are  the  vertebr£e  ?  30.  How  many  are  there  ? 
31.  How  are  they  connected  together  ?  32.  Wliat  ox^ening  is  there 
in  the  spinal  column  ?  33.  What  can  you  say  about  the  Lip-bones? 
34.  Where  is  the  collar-bone  ?  35.  Wliere  is  the  shoulder-blade  ? 
36.  What  is  another  name  for  the  breast-bone  ?      37.  What  is  its 


40  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 

use  ?  38.  How  many  ribs  are  there  ?  39.  What  does  a  rib  look 
like?     40.  Which  are  the  true  ribs?     41.  Which  are  the  false  ribs? 

42.  What  is  a  floating  rib,  and  which  ribs  are  called  floating  ? 

43.  What  is  the  chest,  and  what  does  it  contain  ?  44.  What  is 
another  name  for  it  ?  45.  What  bones  form  the  boundaries  of  the 
chest?  46.  What  is  the  diaphragm,  and  what  cavities  does  it  sep- 
arate ?  47,  What  bones  are  there  in  the  upper  limb  ?  48.  How 
many  bones  are  there  in  the  arm  ?  49.  How  many  in  tlie  forearm  ? 
50.  How  many  bones  are  there  in  the  hand  ?  51.  How  is  the  wrist 
formed?  52.  How  many  bones  are  there  in  each  finger ?  53.  How 
many  bones  are  there  in  each  lower  limb  ?  54.  Which  is  the  largest 
bone  in  the  body  ?  55.  Describe  the  thigh-bone.  56.  How  many 
bones  are  there  in  the  leg  ?  57.  Describe  the  knee-pan  and  its  use. 
58.*  How  many  bones  in  the  foot  ?  59.  Which  are  the  more  movable, 
the  toes  or  the  fingers  ?  60.  Which  is  the  strongest  part  of  the 
foot?  61.  In  jumping  from  a  height,  upon  what  part  of  the  foot 
should  we  alight,  and  why?  62.  What  are  the  dangers  of  high 
heels?  63.  What  are  the  effects  of  too  small  or  badly-formed 
shoes  ? 


CHAPTER  III. 
THE  JOINTS. 

55.  Wherever  two  or  more  bones  meet  is  a  joint.  Joints 
are  necessary  in  order  that  one  part  of  the  body  may  move 
independently  of  the  other.  If  this  arrangement  did  not  exist, 
we  should  have  to  move  the  entire  body  whenever  we  wanted 
to  move  any  j^art  of  it.  If  you  observe  how  a  man  walks  when 
his  knee-joint,  for  instance,  is  stiff  and  cannot  be  used,  you  wdll 
appreciate  how  useful  joints  are.  The  more  joints  there  are  in 
any  part  of  the  body  the  more  movable  is  that  part ;  notice,  for 
instance,  how  movable  the  fingers  are  and  how  man}^  joints 
there  are  in  the  hand. 

56.  According  to  the  amount  of  motion  which  they  permit, 
joints  are  divided  into  three  classes : 

(1.)  Immovable  joints,  in  which  there  is  no  visible 
motion. 

(2.)  Slightly -movable  joints,  in  which  there  is  slight  mo- 
tion only. 

(3.)  Movable  joints,  in  which  there  is  free  motion, 

57.  Immovable  Joints. — The  best  example  of  this  form  of 
joint  is  seen  in  the  skull.  The  flat  bones  of  the  skull  are 
fastened  together  by  means  of  the  small  projections  from  their 
edges.  Such  joints  are  called  sutures.  They  are  very  w^ell 
adapted  to  what  is  required  here,  because  being  closely  joined 
they  make  a  strong  box  of  the  bones  of  the  skull,  and  yet  they 
are  capable  of  a  very  little  motion,  enough  to  break  the  force 
of  blows  upon  the  head.  In  this  way  they  serve  as  additional 
protection  to  the  brain. 

58.  Fig.  22  shows  the  sutures  which  we  find  on  the  upper 
surface  of  the  skull.     In  front,  joining  the  frontal  bone  with 


42 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 


the  two  parietal  bones,  there  is  a  suture  which  extends  across 
the  skull  from  one  side  to  the  other.  It  is  called  the  coronal 
suture,  from  the  Latin  word  corona,  which  means  crown,  be- 
cause the  front  part  of  the  crown  of  a  king  is  supposed  to 
rest  upon  this  line.  Behind,  where  the  occipital  bone  meets 
the  two  parietal  bones  is  another  suture,  called  the  lamhdoid, 


Fig.  22. — View  of  the  Skull  from  Above,  Showing^  the  Sutures. 


on  account  of  its  resemblance  to  the  Greek  letter  lambda  (A). 
Between  these  two  sutures,  the  coronal  and  the  lambdoid,  is 
another  which  connects  the  two  parietal  bones.  It  is  called  the 
sagittal  suture,  from  the  Latin  word  sagitta  (an  arrow),  because 
it  was  thought  to  join  the  coronal  suture  as  an  arrow  meets  the 
string  of  a  bow. 

59.  Slightly  movable  Joints. — In  these  joints  a  fair 
amount  of  motion  is  allowed,  but  much  less  than  in  the  next 
class — the  movable  joints.  We  find  examples  of  slightly  movable 
joints  between  the  different  vertebrae  forming  the  spinal  column. 

60.  Movable  Joints. — These  are  the  most  numerous  and 


THE  JOINTS.  43 

the  iDost  interesting.  In  all  movable  joints  the  same  general 
arrangement  exists  :  the  ends  of  the  bones  forming  the  joint 
are  covered  with  gristle  or  cartilage,  a  dense,  semi-transparent 
substance  much  softer  than  bone,  acting  as  a  cushion  to  the 
ends  of  the  bones,  so  that  they  are  not  bruised  or  injured  when 
the  joint  is  moved,  or  when  the  ends  are  brought  together 
forcibly,  as  in  jumping. 

If  two  surfaces  rubbing  against  each  other  were  dry  they 
would  soon  be  rubbed  off;  hence  it  is  necessary  to  keep  a 
joint  moist  all  the  time.  In  machinery  this  is  accomplished 
by  oil.  In  the  living  body  the  same  thing  is  done  by  a  yellow- 
ish fluid  looking  like  the  white  of  an  egg,  which  constantly 
covers  the  ends  of  these  bones.  This  fluid  is  given  off  from 
the  inner  surface  of  a  sac  which  lines  all  movable  joints.  This 
sac  or  membrane  is  called  the  synovial  membrane,  and  the  fluid 
which  it  gives  off  is  called  synovial  fluid.  The  ends  of  the 
bones  forming  joints  are  held  in  place  and  connected  by  strong 
bands  of  tough  tissue,  which  pass  from  one  bone  to  the  other, 
and  are  called  ligaments.  This  is  shown  in  Fig.  23,  which 
represents  a  joint  cut  in  two  ;  the  bands  on  the  outside,  one 
on  each  side,  passing  from  the  upper  to  the  lower  bone,  are 
the  ligaments.  Sometimes  these  are  so  extensive  as  to  sur- 
round the  entire  joint,  and  thus  be  a  cover  to  it.  This  entire 
covering  is  called  the  capsular  ligament,  because  it  is  like  a 
capsule  ;  this  is  seen  in  Fig.  24. 

61.  Varieties  of  Movable  Joints. — There  are  four  varie- 
ties of  movable  joints  : 

(1.)  Gliding-iomt — in  which  one  boue  slides  upon  the 
other,  as  between  some  of  the  small  bones  forming  the 
wrist. 

(2.)  Hinge-]omt — in  which  one  bone  swings  forward  and 
backward  from  the  end  of  the  other,  just  as  a  door  opens 
and  closes  upon  its  hinges.  A  good  example  of  this  form 
of  joint  is  seen  in  the  connection  of  the  arm  with  the  fore- 
arm at  the  elbow. 


44 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 


(3.)  Pwot-]omt — iu  wliicli  one  bone  turns  upon  tlie  otliei 
by  an  arrangement  resembling  a  pivot.  This  is  seen  in 
the  connection  between  the  skull  and  the  upper  end  of  the 
spinal  column. 


Fig.  23. — One  of  the  Movable  Joints  Sawed 
through  Lengthwise,  with  the  Different  Parts 
ill  their  Proper  Position,  thus  Showing  the 
General  Arninsement  in  Joints. 


Fig.  24.— The  Hip-joint,  Showing  the 
Capsular  Ligament  Surrounding  the  Junc- 
tion l)etwcen  the.  Hip-bone  Above  and  the 
'J'high-bonc  Below. 


(4.)   IjaU-and-socket-joiiit.    This  is  a  form  of  movable  joint 
in  which  the  greatest  amount  of  motion  is  allowed.     One 
bone  ends  in  an  enlargement  like  a  ball  which  fits  into  a 
socket  of  the  other  bone  ;  lieiice  the  term  ball-and-socket. 
Examples  of  this  form  of  joint  are  seen  in  the  shoulder 
and  hip. 
62.   Accidents  to   Joints. — When  one  of  the  bones  which 
forms  the  joint  is  not  in  its  correct  position  and  no  longer  fi(s 
on  the  end  of  the  other,  we  say  that  it  is  out  of  joint  or  dis- 
located.   This  accident  is  very  painful.     The  bones  must  be  put 
in  joint  again  by  the   surgeon.     Often  the  capsular  ligament 
is  torn.    The  accident  is  usually  the  result  of  falls.    Many  such 
falls  take  place  in  getting  off  street-cars,  especially  if  the  car 


THE   JOINTS.  45 

has  not  come  to  a  full  stop,  and  the  persou  does  not  remember 
to  get  off  facing  the  horses. 

SYNOPSIS. 

Definition — The  place  of  meeting  of  two  or  more  bones. 

Uses — To  allow  greater  freedom  of  motion. 

Varieties — According  to  amount  of  motion  permitted  • 

1.  Immovable — no  visible  motion — sutures  : 

a.  Coronal. 
h.  Lambdoid. 
c.  Sagittal,  etc. 

2.  Slightly-movable — slight  motion. 

3.  Movable — free  motion. 

a.  Ends  covered  with  cartilage. 
h.  Uj)on  this  is  synovial  membrane. 

c.  Kept  lubricated  by  synovial  fluid. 

d.  Bones  connected  and  held  in  place  by  ligaments. 

e.  Four  different  forms  : 

1.  Gliding- joint. 

2.  Hinge-joint. 

3.  Pivot-joint. 

4.  Ball-and-socket-joint. 
Accidents — Dislocations — out  of  joint. 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  is  a  joint  in  anatomy  ?  2.  What  advantage  is  there  in 
having  joints  in  the  body?  8.  What  classes  of  joints  are  there? 
4.  Give  an  example  of  an  immovable  joint.  5.  What  is  a  suture  ? 
6.  Name  the  most  important  sutures  of  the  skull,  and  describe  each 
one.  7.  Give  an  example  of  a  slightly  movable  joint.  8.  Describe 
the  general  arrangement  in  movable  joints.  9.  How  are  such  joints 
kept  moist?  10.  What  is  cartilage  ?  11.  What  are  ligaments ?  12. 
How  are  the  ends  of  bones  forming  joints  held  in  place  ?  13.  What 
is  a  capsular  ligament?  14.  What  forms  of  movable  joints  are 
there?  15.  What  is  a  gliding  joint?  16.  Give  an  example.  17. 
What  is  a  hinge  joint  ?  18.  Give  an  example.  19.  What  is  a  pivot 
joint?  20.  Give  an  example.  21.  What  is  a  ball-and-socket  joint? 
22.  Give  an  examijle.     23.  What  is  a  dislocation  ? 


46  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 


Fig.  25.  — The  Muscles  of  the  Human  Body  (the  Skin  having  been  Removed). 


CHAPTER  lY. 
THE   MUSCLES   AND   MOTION. 

63.  Thus  far  ^ve  have  been  studying  the  framework  of  the 
body  and  we  found  this  to  consist  of  about  two  hundred  bones, 
which  together  we  spoke  of  as  the  skeleton  ;  we  found  also  that 
these  bones  were  held  together  by  tough  tissues,  called  cartilage 
and  ligaments ;  we  saw  that  there  were  a  great  many  joints,  so 
that  one  bone  could  move  upon  another.  All  these  formed  the 
framework.  Now  will  be  considered  some  of  the  tissues  which 
cover  the  framework,  or  fill  up  the  spaces  between  the  different 
parts  of  the  skeleton.  The  first  of  these  to  be  considered  are 
the  muscles.  We  will  consider  particularly  that  great  mass  of 
muscles  which  covers  the  skeleton. 

64.  Function,  or  Work  of  the  Muscles. — Muscles  give 
us  the  poioer  of  moving  tlie  different  parts  of  the  skeleton.  Our 
skeletoQ  would  be  of  very  little  value  to  us  if  we  could  not 
move  the  different  bones ;  just  as  the  sails  of  a  ship  would  be 
of  little  use  unless  there  were  ropes  and  pulleys  to  hold  and 
move  them. 

65.  Description  of  Muscle-tissue. — Muscles  are  the  red 
masses  which  we  commonly  call  flesh.  What  the  butcher 
sells  as  meat  is  a  mass  of  muscles  from  some  animal.  When 
we  eat  roast  beef  for  our  Sunday  dinner  we  are  consuming  a 
number  of  large  muscles  from  the  ox.  Muscle  is  of  a  blood- 
red  color.  We  can  separate  each  muscle  into  small  fibres, 
which  are  thread-like  bodies  joined  side  by  side  to  form  a 
fleshy  mass  which  we  call  muscle.     If  we  look  at  such  a  muscle- 


48 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HY^GIENE. 


fibre  under  a  strong  microscope  we  see  a  peculiar  striped  ap- 
pearance, which  shows  that  each  muscle-fibre  is  composed  of  a 

large  number  of  smaller  pieces 
joined  together  at  their  surfaces 
(Fig.  26). 

QQ.  Tendons. — Muscles  are 
strong,  but  still  they  are  too 
soft  to  be  attached  directly  to 
bone ;  they  would  not  hold.  So 
that  strong,  tough  cords,  known 
as  tendons,  are  attached  to  the 
muscles  and  connect  them  with 
the  bones.  The  ten- 
dons are  white  and 
shining  and  hence  can 

FiCr.  26.— A  Piece  of  a  Muscle   Sei>a-  easilv  be  distiu^'uishcd 
rated   into  its  Fibres  and  Showing   the  ^  ^ 

Striped  Appearance  of  the  Fibres.   (Mag-  from     the      m  U  S  C  1 C  S . 
nified  several  hundred  times.) 

They  are  of  great 
strength,  and  it  is  very  rare  for  any  of  them  to 
break.  The  central,  thick,  fleshy  part  of  a  muscle 
is  called  its  belly.  In  Fig.  27  the  belly  of  the  mus- 
cle is  marked  i?,  the  ends  or  tendons  T.  If  you 
feel  the  fleshy  mass  on  the  front  of  the  forearm, 
you  are  feeling  muscle.  But  if  you  put  your  finger 
at  the  wrist,  and  open  and  close  your  hand,  you 
will  feel  hard  cords  move  ;  these  are  the  tendons 
of  the  muscles  of  your  forearm  and  serve  to  attach 
the  muscles  to  the  bones  of  your  fingers. 

67.  Fat. — The  different  muscles  always  have  a 
little  fat  mixed  with  them  which  cannot  be  sepa-  fig.  st.  — a 
rated.  But,  besides  this  smaller  quantity,  there  n'us'cie.^^ 
is  more  or  less  fat  in  layers  between  the  different  Tendons.  '  ' 
muscles  ;  there  is  also  fat  covering  the  muscles  and 
l^etween  the  muscles  and  the  skin.  Meat  free  from  fat  is  said 
to  be  lean. 


THE   MUSCLES   AND   MOTIOK.  49 

68.  Uses  of  Fat. — A  certain  nmount  of  fat  is  necessary, 
and  it  is  useful  in  the  following  ways : 

69.  (1.)  It  keeps  the  body  loaim.  Fat  does  not  allow  the 
heat  of  the  body  to  pass  out  readily,  and  so  it  protects  us  from 
the  cold. 

70.  (2.)  It  protects  tlie  body  from  pressure.  Just  beneath  the 
skin  is  a  layer  of  fat,  thick  at  some  places,  and  thin  at  others. 
Where  the  body  is  exposed  to  much  pressure  the  layer  of  fat  is 
thick,  preventing  us  from  feeling  the  weight  of  the  body.  In 
the  palms  of  the  hands  and  the  soles  of  the  feet,  for  examj^le, 
there  is  much  fat ;  otherwise  our  hands  and  feet  would  ache 
every  time  we  used  them  considerably. 

71.  (3.)  Fat  is  a  food.  When  persons  are  deprived  of  food 
they  may  live  for  a  number  of  days,  for  the  fat  of  their  bodies 
is  changed  into  nourishment  which  the  blood  takes  up  and 
furnishes  to  different  parts  of  the  body.  As  examples  of  this 
we  have  cases  in  which  persons  who  were  shi^Dwrecked,  or  who 
stowed  themselves  away  in  the  hold  of  a  ship  so  as  to  steal  a 
passage,  have  survived  many  daj^s.  The  tissue  which  suffers 
most  is  the  fat ;  this  disappears,  and  on  this  account  such 
persons  rapidly  become  very  thin. 

72.  (4.)  Another  use  of  fat  is  to  give  a  fine  appearance  to  the 
body.  It  fills  up  the  uneven  spaces  that  would  be  left  between 
muscles  and  bones.  If  it  were  not  for  this  the  entire  body 
would  be  uneven  and  lumpy.  In  the  baby,  where  the  muscles 
are  small  and  undeveloped  and  there  is  considerable  fat,  the 
outline  of  the  body  is  nice  and  round.  As  the  baby  gets  older 
the  muscles  become  larger,  and  the  amount  of  fat  smaller, 
and  the  body  is  no  longer  so  j^lump  and  rounded.  Where  the 
muscles  are  well  exercised  much  of  the  fat  is  absorbed  and  the 
muscles  stand  out  prominently.  But  still  there  is  always  some 
fat  present. 

73.  Kinds  of  Muscle-tissue. — Muscle-tissue  is  of  two 
kinds.  One  variety,  to  which  most  muscles  belong,  is  under 
the  control  of  the  will ;  hence  such  muscles  are  known  as  volun- 


50  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 

ta7^y  muscles,  directed  by  the  will.  Such  muscles  remain  in  a 
state  of  rest  until  we  desire  to  use  tliem.  All  tlie  muscles  on 
the  outside  of  the  body  are  of  this  class.  The  muscles  of  our 
arm,  for  instance,  remain  at  rest  during  sleep,  and  at  other 
times  when  we  do  not  care  to  make  use  of  them.  Voluntary 
muscle-tissue  appears  striped  when  looked  at  under  the  micro- 
scope. 

74.  Tiie  other  class  of  muscles  we  call  involuntary,  that  is, 
not  directed  by  the  ivill.  These  muscles  are  situated  inside  the 
body  ;  as  examples  may  be  mentioned  the  heart,  the  layer  of 
muscle  which  is  found  in  the  walls  of  the  stomach  and  intes- 
tines, and  the  muscular  fibres  in  the  walls  of  the  arteries 
and  by  which  these  blood-vessels  are  made  to  contract.  We 
cannot  control  the  action  of  these  muscles  ;  they  act  without 
our  being  conscious  of  it,  and  it  is  well  that  it  is  so.  Take 
the  heart,  for  instance  ;  day  and  night  it  is  at  work  pumping 
the  blood  into  the  blood-vessels,  to  be  carried  all  over  the 
bod}'.  If  we  had  to  watch  over  this  organ,  to  see  that  it 
kept  on  beating,  we  should  always  have  to  stay  awake ;  and 
if  we  were  careless  and  fell  asleep,  and  the  heart  stopped  be- 
cause we  were  not  directing  it  to  keep  on  beating,  life  would 
soon  cease.  As  another  examj^le,  let  us  look  at  the  working  of 
the  stomach.  After  food  enters  this  organ  the  muscular  fibres 
in  its  wall  begin  to  contract  and  move  the  food  about,  so  as  to 
break  it  up  into  finer  particles  ;  this  is  done  without  our  know- 
ing anything  about  it,  and  without  our  being  able  to  control 
it.  Involuntary  muscle-tissue  presents  no  striped  appearance 
under  the  microscope. 

75.  Mixed  Muscles. — Some  muscles  belong  partly  to  one 
class  and  partly  to  the  other  ;  for  instance,  the  muscles  be- 
tween the  ribs,  which  move  the  latter  in  breathing.  These 
act  all  the  time  ;  yet  we  may  not  be  aware  of  their  action,  which 
continues  whether  we  are  asleep  or  awake.  Still  we  can  stop 
breathing  for  a  very  short  time,  or  we  can  breathe  more  rap- 
idly than  is  natural  for  a  very  short  time — but  only  for  a  short 


THE   MUSCLES   AND   MOTION. 


61 


time.     These  muscles  are  jjartly  voluntary  and  partly  involun" 
tary. 

76.  How  Muscles  Act. — When  a  muscle  acts  we  say  it 
contracts;  and  as  a  result  it  causes  some  part  of  the  body 
to  move.  If  we  watch  a  muscle  while  it  is  contracting  we  find 
it  becomes  shorter,   broader,  thicker,  and  at  the   same  time 


Fig.  28.—^,  a  Muscle  at  Rest  ;  B,  the 
same  Muscle  Contracted.  It  has  become 
shorter,  broader,  and  thicker. 


Fig  29. — The  Action  of  the  Biceps  Muscle 
of  the  Front  of  the  Arm.  (The  dotted  fig- 
ure shows  the  effect  of  the  contraction  upon 
the  position  of  the  forearm.) 


harder.     Place  your  left  hand  upon  the  front  of  your  right 
now  bend  your  fingers  into  the  palm  of  your  right  hand 


arm 


and  then  bend  your  right  forearm  upon  the  arm  ;  you  will  feel 
the  muscle  on  the  front  of  the  arm  become  hard  and  swell  up 
— it  has  become  shorter,  thicker,  and  harder.  Since  the  mus- 
cle cannot  break  loose  from  its  attachment  to  bones,  it  must 
bring  these  bones  nearer  together  when  it  shortens.  Fig.  28 
shows  a  long,  fleshy  muscle  at  rest  {A),  and  the  same  muscle 


52  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 

after  contraction  (having  become  shorter,  thicker,  and  broader), 
to  the  right  (B).  In  Fig.  29  the  manner  in  which  the  contrac- 
tion of  a  muscle  causes  motion  is  shown.  The  picture  illus- 
trates the  bicej)S  muscle  on  the  front  of  the  arm.  It  is  attached 
above  to  the  shoulder-blade  (which  is  the  fixed  point),  and  be- 
low to  one  of  the  bones  of  the  forearm  (the  movable  attach- 
ment). The  dotted  figure  shows  the  muscle  after  it  has  con- 
tracted— in  order  to  shorten  it  must  bend  the  forearm,  so  as 
to  bring  its  two  poiuts  of  attachment  nearer  together. 

77.  Though  muscles  have  the  power  to  contract,  they  cannot 
do  this  unless  we  direct  it ;  and  the  order  to  act  comes  from 
the  brain.  If  the  brain  wishes  a  certain  muscle  to  act,  it  sends 
it  a  message,  and  then  the  muscle  responds.  This  message  goes 
from  the  brain  to  the  soft,  whitish  matter  in  the  canal  running 
through  the  centre  of  the  spinal  column,  known  as  the  sjnnal 
cord  ;  from  the  spinal  cord  the  message  is  sent  directly  to  the 
muscle  by  certain-  white  threads,  which  we  call  nerves. 

78.  This  whole  arrangement  is  very  much  like  a  telegi-ajjh 
office:  the  brain  corresponds  to  the  office  to  which  messages 
come  and  from  which  messages  are  sent  out,  and  the  nerves 
we  may  liken  to  the  telegraph  wires  or  messengers  which  carry 
the  despatches.  The  following  example  will  illustrate  this : 
Suppose  you  see  an  orange  on  the  table  before  you.  The  eye 
sends  a  message  to  the  brain,  by  means  of  the  nerve  of  the  eye, 
that  the  orange  is  there.  You  are  heated  and  thirsty,  and 
would  like  to  eat  the  orange.  The  brain  then  sends  out  a  mes- 
sage to  the  muscles  that  move  your  fingers  and  to  those  that 
move  your  arm  that  they  are  to  seize  the  orange,  and  they 
obey.  The  message  from  the  brain  was  carried  down  through 
the  nerve-tissue  in  the  backbone,  the  spinal  cord,  then  through 
the  nerves  of  the  arm  to  their  smallest  branches,  which  pass  to 
the  muscles. 

79.  Although  the  muscles  contract,  and  thereby  cause  the 
movement  of  the  arm,  forearm,  and  fingers,  they  are  only 
the   servants  of  the  brain  and  nerves ;  without  an  order  from 


THE   MUSCLES   AND   MOTION.  53 

the  brain  through  the  nerves  they  could  not  move.  This  is 
proven  by  the  fact  that  when,  from  an  injury,  the  nerves  of  the 
forearm  are  cut  across,  the  muscles  of  the  forearm  and  hand 
become  lame,  and  we  say  they  are  jMvalyzed.  If  we  examine 
them  we  may  find  no  change,  but  they  can  no  longer  receive 
orders  to  act  from  the  brain,  and  on  this  account  are  motion- 
less. 

80.  Ordinary  Muscular  Movements  are  very  Com- 
plex.— It  is  so  easy  for  us  to  make  use  of  our  muscles  that 
we  are  apt  to  believe  every  act  which  they  perform  very  sim- 
ple, but  this  is  not  the  case.  Even  the  very  simplest  acts  in- 
volve the  use  of  a  great  many  different  muscles.  When  Ave 
walk,  for  instance,  we  do  not  even  give  it  a  thought,  yet  very 
many  different  muscles  are  acting,  each  one  with  great  skill 
and  nicety.  It  is  on  this  account  that  man  cannot  construct 
machinery  that  will  perform  many  of  the  things  done  by  his 
hands.  No  machine  could  be  constructed,  for  instance,  that 
could  write,  or  draw,  or  paint  to  imitate  the  work  done  by  hand. 
Even  when  we  stand  there  are  a  number  of  muscles  at  work 
balancing  the  body.  After  standing  a  long  time,  owing  to  the 
fact  that  these  muscles  become  worn  out,  we  feel  tired. 

81.  Groups  of  Muscles. — Usually  we  find  that  muscles 
occur  in  sets,  or  groups,  and  that  one  set  accomplishes  just  the 
opposite  action  from  the  other.  Thus  the  muscles  on  the  front 
of  the  forearm  serve  to  close  the  fingers  and  hand,  while  those 
on  the  back  of  the  forearm  serve  to  open  them.  The  large 
muscle  on  the  back  of  the  arm,  called  the  triceps,  straightens 
out  the  forearm,  while  the  thick  muscle  in  front  of  the  arm, 
called  the  biceps  (Fig.  30),  bends  the  forearm  upon  the  arm. 

82.  All  the  different  expressions  of  the  face  are  produced  by 
the  action  of  the  small  muscles  of  the  face.  AYhen  they  draw 
up  the  corners  of  the  mouth  they  give  rise  to  a  look  of  pleasure 
and  smiling ;  if  they  draw  down  the  corners  of  the  mouth  they 
produce  an  expression  of  sadness  and  displeasure.  They  may 
wrinkle  the  forehead  horizontally  and  make  the  face  look  in 


54  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HY^GIENE. 


Fig.  30.— The  Muscles  of  the  Front  of  the 
Chest,  Ann,  ancl  Forearm.  The  fan-like 
muscle  above  and  to  the  left  is  the  "  pec- 
toralis ;  *'  in  the  centre  of  the  arm  is  seen 
the  "  biceps." 


doubt,  or  wrinkle  it  vertically, 
producing  a  frown.     There  are 
many  other  varieties  of  expres- 
sion.     The    expression    of    the 
face    soon  becomes  that    which 
the    person    himself    habitually 
uses.     If   you   look    sullen   and 
angry  all  the  time  the  face  will 
soon    have    this    expression,   be- 
cause the  muscles  become  so  ac- 
customed to  acting  in  this  way 
that  they   cannot  do    otherwise. 
In  the  same  way  3'ou  may  have 
a    constant    silly    expression,    if 
you  act  the  part  of  a  fool  every 
time    you   are    with   your    com- 
2:)anions.     Some  children  are  in 
the  habit  of  twisting  their  eyes 
so    that    they   look    cross-eyed. 
This  they  often  do  to  make  their 
friends  laugh.     They  should  re- 
member that  from  constantly  do- 
ing this  the  eyes  may  be  injured. 
83.    Number    of  Muscles. 
— There  are  about  three  hunched 
muscles  on  each  side  of  the  body, 
making  about  six  hundred  in  all. 
Nearly  all   the  muscles  occur 
in  pairs,  that  is,  are  the  same 
on  one  side  as  on  the  other. 
A  few  muscles  which  exist  in 
the  middle   line  of  the   body 
are  single. 

84.  Shape  of  Muscles. — 
Muscles  vary  greatly  in  shaj^e. 


THE   MUSCLES   AND    MOTION. 


55 


The  most  frequent  form  is  tlmt  of  a  long,  flesLy  Inindle  witli  a 
tendon  at  either  end  for  fastening  it  to  bone.  Sometimes  they 
are  flattened  and  placed  in  layers,  as  is  the  case  in  the  muscles 
of  the  wall  of  the  abdomen.  Some  muscles  consist  of  flattened 
bundles  which  come  together  toward  a  single  point  like  a  fan  ; 
such  is  the  muscle  of  the  temple — the  temporal  muscle.  Other 
muscles  are  square-shaped,  and  still  others  form  a  circular 
ring  ;  so  that  there  is  great  variety  in  the  shapes  of  muscles, 

85.  Size  of  Muscles= — Here,  too,  there  are  the  greatest 
differences.  Some  of  the  muscles  in  the  interior  of  the  ear  are 
only  a  fraction  of  an  inch  in  length.  Some  of  those  of  the  e^'e 
are  about  an  inch  in  length,  while  the  longest  muscle  is  one 
which  extends  from  the  hip  to  below  the  knee,  and  is  over  two 
feet  in  length.  Between  these  two  extremes  there  are  many 
different  sizes. 

86.  A  Few  Important  Mus- 
cles.— It  is  not  necessar}^  for  you 
to  remember  the  names  of  many  of 
the  muscles,  but  there  are  a  few 
which  are  worth  remembering,  be- 
cause they  are  important,  and  be- 
cause W'C  often  see  them  mentioned 
in  books  and  newspapers.  They  are 
the  following : 

87.  Tlie  Biceps  is  the  large  fleshy 
muscle  on  the  front  of  the  arm,  which 
bends  the  forearm  upon  the  arm 
(Figs.  30  and  31).  It  can  be  felt 
upon  making  this  motion. 

88.  The  Triceps  is  the  muscle  of 
considerable  size  which  can  be  felt 
upon  the  back  of  the  arm.     It  serves 

to    straighten   out   the   forearm   after   the  biceps  has  bent  it. 

89.  The  Chest-muscle,  or  Pectoralis  (Fig.  30),  forms  the  prom- 
inence at  the  upper  part  of  the  chest  on  each  side.     It  is  trian- 


FiG.    31.— The    Biceps    and  Tri- 
ceps  Muscles. 


56 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 


gular  in  shape,  like  a  fan.     It  draws  the  arm  inward  across  the 
chest. 

90.  I7ie  Diaphragm  is  the  sheet  of  muscle  which  separates 
the  cavity  of  the  chest  from  that  of  the  abdomen.  It  is  of 
great  importance,  and  is  one  of  the  principal  muscles  concerned 
in  breathing.     It  is  an  involuntary  muscle. 

91.  The  Tendon  of  Achilles.  —  This  is 
the  strong,  thick  cord  which  you  can  feel  at 
the  back  and  lower  part  of  the  leg,  just  above 
the  heel.  It  is  the  end  of  a  very  large  and 
powerful  muscle  which  raises  the  heel  when 
we  walk.  It  has  received  its  name  from  the 
following  story:  Achilles  was  a  Grecian  hero. 
There  was  supposed  to  be  a  river,  the  Styx,  of 
which  it  was  said  that  whoever  bathed  in  its 
waters  could  not  be  wounded.  The  mother  of 
Achilles  wishing  to  preserve  her  son  from  all 
future  danger,  dipped  him  into  this  river  Styx, 
holding  him  by  the  heel.  All  parts  of  his  body 
were  w^et  except  the  heel  by  which  he  was  held, 
and  at  this  place  he  is  said  to  have  received  his 
death-wound. 

92.  The  Care  of  Muscles.— The  muscles 
form  such  a  large  part  of  the  body  that  they 
soon  show  changes  whenever  our  health  is  poor. 
During  sickness,  they  waste  away  and  become 
smaller.  Even  after  being  confined  to  bed  for  a 
few  days  we  are  surprised  to  find  how  weak 
we  feel  on  getting  up,  and  how  difficult  it  is 
to  stand.  During  this  short  period  our  mus- 
cles have  become  weaker  because  we  could  not 

exercise  them.     So  in  order  to  get  strong  muscles  they  must 
be  much  exercised. 

93.  Exercise. — Look  at  the  arm  of  a  blacksmith  and  see 
how  well-developed  his  muscles  are.     This  is  because  he  is 


Fig.  32.— The  Mus- 
cles of  the  Back  of 
the  Leg,  showing  Be- 
low (*  *)  the  Tendon 
of  Achilles. 


THE   MUSCLES   AND   MOTION.  57 

constantly  exercising  them.  In  the  same  way  the  legs  of  a 
man  who  walks  or  runs  a  great  deal  will  be  well  developed, 
and  become  prominent  and  hard.  It  is  a  fine  sight  to  see  a 
man  who  has  large  muscles  which  stand  out  and  make  him  look 
strong  and  manly.  Such  a  man  is  not  so  apt  to  get  sick  as 
another  ;  he  feels  stronger  and  may  be  more  useful  in  the 
world  because  of  his  strength. 

94.  All  children  should  exercise  regularly  and  sufficiently.  It 
is  not  enough  to  walk  slowly  to  school  each  day ;  if  this  is  all 
the  exercise  a  person  takes  his  muscles  will  become  small  and 
weak,  and  he  will  become  delicate.  Children  should  have  at 
least  tivo  or  three  hours  exercise  each  day.  The  best  exercise  is 
that  which  is  taken  in  the  open  air. 

95.  Playing  with  one's  companions  is  the  best  kind  of 
exercise,  because  it  rests  the  mind  and  exercises  the  body 
at  the  same  time.  Fast  walking,  moderate  running,  row- 
ing, swimming,  skating,  bicycle  -  riding,  and  playing  base- 
ball, foot-ball,  tennis,  and  croquet  are  all  good  forms  of  exer- 
cise. 

96.  We  must  remember  to  quit  exercise  ivhen  ive  begin  to  feel 
tired,  for  this  is  a  sign  that  we  have  exercised  enough  and  need 
rest.  If  exercise  be  continued  too  long  it  is  harmful  instead  of 
beneficial.  Many  girls  do  themselves  great  harm  by  excessive 
exercise  in  jumping  a  rope,  by  trying  to  outdo  their  com- 
panions in  the  number  of  times  they  can  jump  without  stop- 
ping. They  often  become  greatly  exhausted,  and  death  has 
sometimes  resulted. 

97.  We  should  also  avoid  all  violent  exercise,  for  this  does 
more  harm  than  good.  When  boys  try  to  lift  heav}"  weights 
which  would  be  a  task  even  for  men,  or  do  too  difiicult  feats  in 
the  gymnasium,  producing  too  great  a  strain  upon  the  muscles, 
it  only  harms  them  instead  of  causing  them  to  increase  in 
strength. 

98.  Effects  of  Alcohol  and  Tobacco  on  Muscles. — Of 
all  enemies  to  the  development  of  muscle  there  are  none  greater 


58  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 

than  alcohol  and  lobacco.  Tins  is  so  well  kDown  that  all  per- 
sons who  train  in  order  to  accomplish  physical  feats  requiring 
unusual  strength  and  the  best  of  health,  give  up  all  use  of 
tobacco  and  either  use  very  little  alcoholic  drink  or  none  at  all. 
What  alcohol  is  will  be  explained  in  another  chapter.  It  will 
be  sufficient  to  say  here  that  all  those  drinks  which,  taken  in 
any  quantity,  cause  men  to  become  intoxicated,  contain  alcohol 
and  are  called  alcoholic  drinks. 

99.  The  word  train  also  requires  explanation.  It  means  to 
live  in  the  most  healthy  way  ;  to  go  to  bed  early  and  rise 
early  ;  to  eat  the  most  digestible  and  strength-giving  food  ; 
to  take  plenty  of  out-of-door  exercise  ;  to  avoid  all  tobacco ; 
and  to  abstain  entirely  from  drink  containing  alcohol.  All 
this  is  done  to  develop  the  muscles,  so  that  one  may  be  2:)ut 
in  a  fine  and  healthy  condition,  and  become  as  strong  as 
possible. 

100.  Everyone  has  probabl}^  heard  of  the  great  boat-races 
which  take  place  every  year  between  Columbia  and  Harvard 
Colleges,  and  between  Harvard  and  Yale  Colleges.  There  is 
great  rivalry  between  the  colleges,  and  of  course  each  likes  to 
win  the  race.  Each  of  these  crews  trains  throughout  the  winter 
and  spring  until  the  day  of  the  race,  so  as  to  become  strong 
and  increase  the  chaaces  of  winning.  Every  member  leads  a 
most  regular  life,  and  smoking  and  alcoholic  drinks  are  absolute- 
ly forbidden. 

101.  Alcohol  is  the  enemy  of  mmcle  because  it  changes  it  into 
fat.  When  a  muscle  contains  much  fat  it  becomes  iveak  and 
useless.  Look  at  the  drunkard  and  see  how  weak  and  flabby 
his  muscles  are.  He  may  look  big,  but  it  is  due  to  fat  and  not 
to  muscle,  and  though  he  looks  large  he  is  bloated  and  puffed 
up ;  he  really  is  weak  and  tires  easily.  Nor  is  this  all.  The 
heart  also  is  formed  of  muscle-tissue,  and  becomes  changed  (o 
fat  in  the  druid^ard,  when  it  cannot  beat  so  strongly  as  it 
should.  It  becomes  weak,  and  the  blood  is  no  longer  pumped 
into  the  arteries  as  it  should  be,  and  the  entire  body  suffers. 


THE    MUSCLES    AND    MOTION.  59 

Sometimes  there  is  so  mucli  fat  mixed  with  the  muscle  of  the 
heart  that  its  wall  becomes  thin,  and  it  may  even  burst ;  then 
instant  death  ensues. 


SYNOPSIS. 

Function  of  Muscle —Power  of  moving  parts  of  skeleton. 
Description  : 

1.  Red  masses  commonly  called  flesh. 

2.  Divisible  into  fibres. 

3.  Have  the  power  of  contracting  or  shortening. 

4.  Three  kinds  are  : 

a.  Voluntary— Under  control  of  the  will — on  outside  of 
body. 

1.  Appear  striped  under  the  microscope. 

2.  End  in  tendons  for  attachment  to  bones. 

3.  In  contracting,  become  shorter,  thicker,  broader, 
and  harder. 

b.  Involuntary — not   under  control  of  the   will — heart, 
walls  of  stomach  and  arteries,  etc. 

1.  Are  not  striped  as  seen  under  microscope. 

2.  No  tendons. 

c.  Mixed— Consisting  partly  of  voluntary,  partly  of  in- 
voluntary fibres,  such  as  muscles  between  the  ribs. 

5.  More  or  less  fat  between  the  fibres,  between  the  different 
muscles,  and  covering  them. 

6.  Muscles  usually  occur  in  groups. 
Uses  of  Fat : 

1.  To  keep  the  body  warm. 

2.  To  protect  the  body  from  ijressure. 

3.  To  serve  as  a  food. 

4.  To  improve  the  appearance  of  the  body. 
The  Way  in  which  Muscles  act : 

1.  Become  shorter. 

2.  Become  broader. 

3.  Become  thicker. 

4.  Become  harder. 

5.  Bring  together  the  parts  to  which  attached. 


60  AISTATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 

6.  Dependent  upon  the  influence  of  tlie  brain,  spinal  cord, 
and  nerves. 

7.  Ordinary  mnscular  movements  very  complex. 
Number  of  Muscles — About  three  hundred  on  each  side. 

Shape  of  Muscles — Varies  greatly :  Most  frequently,  long  fleshy 
bundle  ;    flat,  fan-shaped,  square-shaped,  circular,  etc. 

Size  of  Muscles — Varies  greatly  ;  smallest,  a  fraction  of  an  inch 
(found  in  ear)  ;  largest,  over  two  feet  in  length  (extends  from  hij:)- 
bone  to  leg). 

A  Few  Important  Muscles  : 

1.  Biceps — Front  of  arm — bends  forearm  upon  arm. 

2.  Tricei^s — Back  of  arm — straightens  arm. 

3.  Pectoralis — Muscle  of  chest — draws  arm  across  chest. 

4.  Diaphragm — Involuntary  muscle  separating  abdomen  from 
chest — muscle  of  breathing. 

5.  Tendon  of  Achilles — Just  above  heel — lower  end  of  a  large 
muscle  of  leg — has  received  its  name  from  story  concerning 
Achilles. 

Care  of  Muscles  : 

1.  They  suffer  when  general  health  is  jjoor. 

2.  They  need  regular  and  sufficient  exercise. 

3.  Children  should  have  at  least  two  or  three  hours'  exercise 
every  day,  in  the  open  air. 

4.  Good  forms  of  exercise — Baj^id  walking,  moderate  running, 
rowing,  swimming,  skating,  bicycle-riding,  horseback-riding, 
base-ball,  foot-ball,  tennis,  croquet. 

5.  Stop  exercise  when  beginning  to  feel  tired. 

6.  Avoid  violent  exercise. 

7.  Effects  of  alcohol  and  tobacco  on  muscles  : 

a.  Enemies  to  the  development  of  muscles. 

h.  Alcohol  changes  muscle  into  fat — becomes  weak  and 
flabby. 

c.  Alcoiiol  changes  heart  into  fat — becomes  weak  aud 
does  work  x^oorly. 


THE   MtJSCLES   AND   MOTION.  61 


QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  use  do  we  make  of  muscles?  2,  What  does  muscle-tis- 
sue look  like  ?  3.  What  is  it  commonly  called  ?  4.  What  are  mus- 
cle-fibres ?  5.  Wliat  are  tendons  ?  6.  Of  what  use  are  tendons  ? 
7.  What  can  you  say  about  the  appearance  and  the  strength  of  ten- 
dons ?  8.  How  does  fat  occur  with  muscle  ?  9.  What  are  the  uses 
of  fat  in  the  body  ?  10.  What  proof  is  there  that  fat  is  used  as 
nourishment  by  the  blood?  11.  Is  there  a  larger  proportion  of  fat 
in  the  baby  or  in  the  grown  person  ?  12.  What  three  kinds  of  mus- 
cle are  there  ?  13.  W^hat  is  a  voluntary  muscle  ?  14.  Give  an  ex- 
am j^le  ?  15.  What  is  an  involuntary  muscle?  16.  Give  an  ex- 
ample ?  17.  Why  is  it  necessary  that  some  muscles  shall  be  invol- 
untary ?  18.  Give  an  example  of  the  working  of  an  involuntary 
muscle.  19.  Do  muscles  ever  belong  to  both  classes  ?  20.  Give 
an  example.  21.  What  do  we  mean  when  we  say  a  muscle  con- 
tracts ?  22.  How  does  the  muscle  change  when  it  acts?  23.  Can 
the  muscles  contract  of  their  own  accord  ?  24.  What  causes  the 
muscle  to  act?  25.  What  part  does  the  brain  take  in  the  contrac- 
tion of  muscles  ?  26.  What  part  do  the  nerves  take  in  this  ?  27. 
How  can  you  prove  that  muscle  itself  cannot  act  without  the  influ- 
ence of  the  nerves  ?  28.  What  two  sets  of  muscles  do  we  usually 
find  together,  and  how  does  one  set  act  toward  the  other?  29.  Give 
an  example  of  two  muscles  which  have  exactly  opposite  actions  ? 
30.  How  are  the  different  expressions  of  sorrow,  joy,  and  the  like 
produced  in  the  face  ?  31.  What  may  result  from  continually  hav- 
ing an  ugly  or  a  foolish  expression  in  the  face  ?  32.  How  many 
muscles  are  there  in  the  human  body  ?  33.  Do  muscles  usually  oc- 
cur singly,  or  are  they  usually  the  same  on  one  side  of  the  body  as 
on  the  other?  34.  Mention  some  of  the  shapes  of  muscles.  35. 
How  do  muscles  vary  in  size  ?  36.  Where  is  the  BicejJS  muscle  ? 
37.  Describe  the  Triceps  muscle.  38.  Describe  the  Diaphragm. 
39.  Describe  the  chest-muscle,  and  give  its  other  name.  40.  Where 
is  the  Tendon  of  Achilles  ?  41.  From  what  circumstance  did  it  re- 
ceive its  name  ?  42.  How  does  the  condition  of  our  health  afiect 
the  state  of  our  muscles  ?  43.  What  happens  when  we  do  not  use 
our  muscles  ?  44.  What  effect  has  exercise  upon  our  muscles  ?  45. 
How  much  exercise  should  children  have  every  day  ?     46.  AVhere 


62 


ANATOMY.    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 


is  the  best  place  to  take  this  exercise,  in  the  open  air  or  in-doors  ? 
47.  What  is  the  best  kind  of  exercise  for  children  ?  48.  Mention 
some  of  the  good  forms  of  exercise  ?  49.  What  effect  has  exercise 
when  it  is  continued  too  long  ?  50.  What  effect  has  exercise  which 
is  too  violent  and  heavy  ?  51.  What  effects  have  alcohol  and  to- 
bacco ujDon  the  development  of  muscle?  52.  What  do  you  mean 
by  alcoholic  drinks?  53.  What  is  meant  by  training?  54.  What 
is  the  effect  of  training?  55.  Why  is  alcohol  injurious  to  muscle? 
56.  What  effect  has  alcohol  uj^on  the  heart-muscle  ? 


CHAPTER  y. 
FOOD  AND  DRINK. 

102.  As  we  shall  see  later,  the  different  tissues  of  our  bodies 
are  beiug  used  up  coustantly.  They  are  then  replaced  by  ma- 
terials taken  from  the  blood.  The  blood  receives  the  nutritious 
matters  from  our  food  and  drink.  Of  course,  our  food  has  to 
be  changed  very  much  before  the  blood  can  absorb  it  to  build 
up  the  different  parts  of  the  body.  When  we  drink  milk  we 
say  it  is  nourishing,  and  no  doubt  it  is  ;  but  the  milk  must  be- 
come chano'ed  in  the  stomach  and  intestines  before  it  can  enter 
the  blood  and  circulate  through  the  body  to  replace  used-up 
tissues. 

103.  Food  and  Drink  are  Essential  to  Life.— Without 
food  and  drink  we  could  not  live  ;  they  are  necessary  for  life 
and  growth.  We  often  hear  of  people  fasting  for  a  long  time. 
It  has  happened  that  persons  have  lived  for  a  few  weeks  with- 
out au}^  food,  but  never  without  drink.  If  the  body  be  deprived 
of  both  food  and  drink,  death  takes  place,  usually  after  several 
days.  It  is  easy  to  see  why  this  must  be  so.  Even  when  we 
are  as  quiet  as  possible,  the  different  tissues  of  our  body  are  con- 
stantly changing,  and  are  constantly  being  changed  into  material 
which  is  waste  and  must  be  cast  off.  We  must  breathe,  and  our 
heart  must  act  constantly,  and  both  of  these  are  muscular  ac- 
tions and  consume  nutrition  furnished  by  the  blood.  If  the 
blood  does  not  get  a  sufficient  supply  of  this  from  our  food  and 
drink,  it  must  take  it  from  the  tissues,  which  would  soon  waste, 
and  the  person  would  die  from  weakness,  because  both  blood  and 
solid  tissues  would  become  changed  so  much  that  they  would 
be  unable  to  perform  their  functions. 


64  AISTATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 

104.  Difference  in  the  Food  of  Plants  and  of  Animals. 

— The  food  of  plants  is  quite  different  from  that  of  animals, 
being  much  more  simple.  Plants  live  upon  air,  the  ganen  con- 
tained in  the  air,  the  moidurehovLi  the  ground,  and  certain  salts 
which  are  in  the  ground.  These  things  are,  of  course,  en- 
tirely too  simple  to  support  animals.  Animals  require  some- 
thing more.  If  you  should  try  the  experiment  of  feeding  your 
pet  dog  upon  nothing  but  water,  air,  and  salts,  you  would  find 
he  would  become  very  thin  and  weak,  and  would  soon  die  from 
lack  of  food. 

105.  Difference  in  the  Food  of  Different  Animals. — 
Some  animals  live  almost  entirely  upon  flesh,  and  are  therefore 
called  carnivorous—SL  long  word,  meaning  that  they  devour 
flesh.  The  cat,  the  dog,  the  lion,  and  the  tiger  are  examj^les 
of  tins  class. 

106.  Other  animals  exist  upon  vegetables,  grass,  grain,  and 
the  like,  and  are  therefore  called  herhivorous — that  is,  herb-de- 
vouring.   Of  this  class  the  cow,  horse,  and  rabbit  are  examples. 

107.  Man  belongs  to  neither  of  these  two  classes.  He  com- 
bines the  two,  requiring  both  fleshy  and  vegetaJjlefood.  With  these 
he  must  also  have  loater  and  a  certain  amount  of  mineral  salts. 

108.  Fleshy  Food. — By  fleshy  food  is  meant  meat,  whether 
from  the  ox,  sheep,  or  other  animal  of  this  class,  or  from 
fishes. 

109.  Vegetable  Food. — This  is  the  name  given  to  the 
food  which  plants  produce.  It  contains  starch,  sugar,  and  other 
matters.  One  variety  of  this  kind  of  food  contains  a  large 
amount  of  starch,  and  is  therefore  called  starchy,  or  farinaceous 
food.  Examples  of  this  kind  are  wheat,  which  furnishes  the 
flour  from  which  bread  is  made,  corn,  barley,  rice,  oats,  and  the 
like.  Hay  also  belongs  to  this  class.  Man  could  not,  of  course, 
eat  ha}',  since  his  stomach  is  not  arranged  so  that  he  could  di- 
gest it ;  but  the  ox  eats  hay,  which  is  converted  in  his  body 
into  nutritious  materials  from  which  his  flesh  is  formed,  and 
the  latter  is  then  eaten  by  man. 


FOOD   AND   DKINK. 


65 


110.  Starch. — It  is  important  to  understand  tlioronghly 
what  starchy  food  is.  You  may  have  seen  starch  used  for  stif- 
fening* Hnen.  When  used  in  this  way,  it  is  first  mixed  with 
water  and  then  placed  on  the  fire,  which  causes  it  to  swell  up 
and  become  changed  into  a  paste.  Raw  starch  is  not  suitable 
for  food  for  man  ;  it  must  first  be  made  dioestible  bv  boilinc'. 
All  starchy  food  must  first  be  boiled  before  it  can  be  used  as 
food.  The  cow  and  ox  can  eat  hay  and  oats  and  digest  them  ; 
but  man  would  not  think  of  taking  oatmeal  raw,  but  only  after 


Fig.  33. — Starch  Granules  (from  Potato)  as  Seen  under  the  Microscope. 


it  had  been  boiled.  The  same  applies  to  rice, 
all  other  farinaceous  food.  There  is  no  starch 
none  in  animals  ;  it  occurs  only  in  plants. 

111.  Starch  is  a  white  powder  which  has  a 
ing.     When  looked  at  under  the  microscope 
powder  has  a  peculiar  form  and  is  marked 
(Pig.  33). 

112.  Another  form  of  vegetable  food  has  a 
sugar  in  it ;  so  that  we  are  constantly  taking 
food  to  form  nourishment. 


farina,  barle}',  and 
in  fleshy  food  and 

strange,  dry  feel- 
each  grain  of  the 
b}^  rings  or  lines 

large  quantity  of 
in  su^ar  with  our 


66  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 

113.  Then  it  is  also  necessary  that  we  should  eat  green  vege- 
tables, as  i^eas,  spinach,  string  beans,  salad,  and  the  like.  When 
dej)rived  of  these  for  any  length  of  time,  the  blood  becomes  poor, 
and  the  body  suffers. 

114.  Fat  and  Fatty  Food. — Fat  or  fatty  food  forms  an 
essential  part  of  our  food.  This  is  why  we  eat  butter  with  our 
bread.  The  fat  which  we  take  in  with  our  food  may  be  vege- 
table, as  for  instance,  certain  nuts,  or  of teuer  animal  food  in  the 
form  of  butter  from  cows'  milk  and  the  fat  around  meat.  In 
the  body,  starchy  and  sugar}^  food  is  changed  into  fat,  and 
this  is  wli}"  we  say  that  potatoes,  bread,  and  the  like  are 
fattening. 

115.  Water. — Water  is  even  more  necessary  to  life  than  is 
food.  A  person  could  live  longer  without  food  than  without 
drink.  The  great  drink  is,  of  course,  ivaler.  Three-fourths 
of  the  weight  of  the  human  body  is  water ;  consequently  water 
is  an  absolutely  essential  addition  to  our  food. 

116.  Tea  and  Coffee. — Much  of  the  liquid  which  we  drink 
is  a  decoction  of  tea  and  coffee.  Grown  people,  while  not  usually 
harmed  by  either  of  these,  sometimes  make  themselves  nervous 
b}"  drinking  too  much  or  too  strong  ;  but  both  are  injurious  to 
children,  for  whom  milk  or  water  are  the  best  drinks.  Chocolate 
contains  considerable  nutritious  fatty  matter.  Hence  chocolate 
is  more  of  a  food,  while  tea  and  coffee  are  only  stimulants — that 
is,  they  excite  the  system  for  the  time  only.  Children  do  not 
need  stimulants  of  an}''  kind. 

117.  Man  must  Combine  all  Forms  of  Food  with 
Water. — Man  is  so  constituted  that  he  cannot  exist  upon  any 
one  form  of  food  alone.  Meat  is  very  nourishing,  but  a  man 
could  not  exist  on  meat  alone  ;  he  would  soon  become  thin  and 
weak.  He  must  have  meat,  fatty  food,  vegetable  food,  and 
water,  all  combined. 

Some  of  the  Simplest  Forms  of  Food. — We  will  now 
consider  some  of  the  different  forms  of  food. 

118.  Meat  and   Fish. — There  are  a  great  many  different 


FOOD   AIS^D   DRINK.  67 

kinds  of  meat.  Beef  is  used  more  tlian  any  of  the  others. 
There  is  always  some  fat  mixed  with  the  meat,  even  when  we 
cannot  trim  off  any  more.  Under  this  head  also  come  chicken, 
turke}^,  and  other  fowl.  Fish  is  a  very  useful  form  of  fleshy 
food,  and  is  usually  quite  easily  digested, 

119.  Bread. — Bread  is  made  from  flour.  In  America,  this  is 
usually  wheat  ground  up  tine.  The  baker  takes  the  flour  and 
adds  water  and  a  little  salt,  and  with  these  he  makes  the 
dough.  He  also  adds  yeast,  and  will  tell  you  he  does  this  to 
make  it  rise,  so  that  it  will  be  light  and  easy  to  digest.  What 
does  the  yeast  do  ?  When  it  is  added  to  the  dough  it  changes 
some  of  the  starch  so  that  a  gas  is  given  off.  This  gas  escapes 
in  bubbles,  but  cannot  get  through  the  dough.  When  it  tries 
to  work  its  way  out,  it  puffs  out  the  dough  and  makes  it 
light  and  porous.  Then  this  dough  is  put  into  the  oven  and 
baked,  a  hard  crust  forming  on  the  outside.  Bread  is  often 
called  the  staff  of  life  on  account  of  its  importance. 

120.  Milk. — Most  of  the  milk  used  by  man  is  obtained 
from  the  cow ;  but  in   some   countries   milk 

is  obtained  from  the  qoat  and  from  the  ai<s.      i'g-^i-'-^Vi:^v 

Milk  is  one  of  the  most  nutritious  articles  of  /©^:ii'l^A-at=-?i-"«v. 

food,  and  at  the  same  time  one  of  the  most  ?-']l"'  °y-^^i^^^^ 

easily   di^'ested.       Milk    contains    substances  '"iit^-t^^:^^,!^ 


which  are  like  all  the  different  kinds  of  food       ®;^^^Sf4^" 
which  man   requires.     It    contains   materials      via.  ?a.—k  nmn  of 

Ti  11  p  -\      •         n      ^        £    L  ii.1  Milk  Seen  nntler  the  Mi- 

like  those  lound  m  flesh,  lat,  and  others  croscope.  showing  the 
which  resemble  those  found  in  vegetable  food,  ^^t-giobuies  (Cream). 
and  it  contains  a  large  amount  of  water.  Thus  it  has  in  it 
everything  that  we  require,  so  that  we  could  live  on  milk  ivit/i- 
out  any  other  food.  The  baby  thrives  on  milk  alone  for  a  long 
time,  but  after  awhile  man  longs  for  more  variety  in  his 
food. 

The  fatty  part  of  the  milk,  the  cream,  floats  on  top  after  the 
milk  has  stood  for  a  time,  when  it  can  then  be  taken  off". 

121.    Butter   is  nothing  but  this  cream  pressed   together. 


68  AT^^ATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 

Cream  consists  of  fat-giobiiles  (Fig.  34).  When  milk  is  churned, 
these  fat-globules  stick  together,  and  in  this  way  form  a  mass 
called  butter. 

122.  Milk  from  which  the  cream  has  been  taken  is  called 
skimmed  milk,  it  then  has  a  bluish  tint,  and  is  less  nour- 
ishing. 

123.  If  we  add  a  little  piece  of  the  stomach  of  the  calf  to  the 
milk,  it  causes  it  to  thicken  or  curd.  This  curd  properly  treated 
and  pressed  together  forms  cheese. 

124.  Eggs  are  obtained  from  the  hen,  and  from  other  birds 
of  this  kind.  They  are  very  nutritious  and  easily  digested. 
The  shell  of  the  egg  is  lime.  The  contents  of  the  egg  consist 
of  two  parts,  the  white  and  the  yellow.  In  the  j'ellow  or  yolk 
of  the  egg  is  much  fatt}'  matter.  Both  portions  of  the  egg- 
correspond  to  fleshy  food. 

125.  Variety  In  Food. — We  could  not  eat  the  same  kind 
of  food  every  day,  for  we  should  soon  get  tired  of  it ;  it  is  neces- 
sary to  have  different  kinds  of  food.  Certain  foods,  however, 
as  milk,  butter,  bread,  beef,  seem  never  to  tire  us. 

126.  Proper  Food. — If  we  wish  to  remain  healthy  we  must 
not  eat  improper  food.  Girls  who  eat  too  much  candy,  or  too 
many  pickles,  usually  have  very  little  appetite  for  awy  proper 
food,  and  soon  become  pale  and  delicate.  And  boj^s  who  eat 
green  apples  in  summer,  or  unripe  fruit  of  an}'  kind,  are  sure  to 
repent  it.  They  are  apt  to  become  sick,  and  to  have  great  pain 
in  the  stomach. 

127.  Methods  of  Cooking. — Sometimes  we  eat  our  food 
raw,  as,  for  instance,  fruit ;  but  usually  we  cook  it,  because  it 
becomes  more  digestible  and  tastes  better.  In  cooking,  we 
may  make  use  of  a  great  many  different  plans.  If  it  is  meat, 
we  may  put  it  into  water  and  boil  it,  or  if  we  let  it  get  a  little 
thicker,  we  slew  it.  We  may  put  it  into  the  pan  with  some  fat 
and/r*/  it.  By  holding  it  directly  to  the  fire  we  broil,  or  roast 
it.  Finally,  by  putting  it  into  the  oven,  we  bake  it.  Of  all 
these  different  methods,  boiling,  stewing^  and  broiling,  are  most 


FOOD   AND   DRINK. 


69 


to  be  recommended,  because  they  make  the  food  the  easiest  to 
digest. 

128.  You  must  remember  also  to  take  food  at  regular  times 
in  the  day.  Usually  three  meals  a  day  are  enough.  Never  eat 
in  a  hurry,  but  chew  your  food  well.  Never  eat  so  much  at  one 
meal  that  you  feel  lieavy,  full,  and  uncomfortable. 

129.  Our  D  r  I  n  k i  n g- wate  r . — Water  is  the  great  drink,  and 
it  is  very  necessary  that  it  should  be  pure.     Clear  water  is  not 


Fig.  35. — A  Section  of  a  Dwelling,  and  its  Accompaniments,  as  is  often  Found  in  the 
Country.  The  shading  extending  from  the  stable  to  the  layer  of  rock  at  the  bottom  of  the 
well,  shows  the  course  of  the  poisonous  material  from  the  stable,  with  its  manure-heap  and 
pig-pen,  to  the  well. 

always  pure.  Water  may  be  very  impure  and  still  be  very  clear 
and  transparent.  And  again,  water  may  look  a  little  cloudy, 
and  yet  be  perfectly  innocent  and  healthy.  What  makes  some 
water  unhealthy  and  injurious  is  poison  dissolved  from  the  soil. 
In  cities  where  the  water  is  brought  from  a  distance  in  pipes, 
this  poison  is  not  apt  to  occur ;  but  in  the  country,  wdiere  the 
water  from  wells  is  used,  it  is  often  present.  In  the  country, 
very  often  no  other  water  can  be  obtained  except  that  from  the 
well,  and  for  the  sake  of  convenience,  the  well  is  built  near  the 
house  and  the  stable,  where  it  is  very  apt  to  be  poisoned.     Fig. 


70  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOOY,    AND   HYGIENE. 


,       A  J^xa.^j.v^ijwvj,  J., 


35  illustrates  very  nicely  the  manner  in  \Yliich  the  well-water 
may  become  poisoned.  It  is  a  good  example  of  what  occurs 
constantly  in  m^ny  places  in  the  country  where  well-water  is 
used  without  proper  precautions  having  been  taken  to  j^revent 
poisoning. 

130.  An  examination  of  the  picture  on  p.  69  shows  the  follow- 
ing :  To  the  right  is  the  dwelling-house  ;  to  the  left  is  the  stable 
with  its  manure-heap  and  pig-pen  ;  between  these  two  is  the 
well.  The  surface  of  the  ground  is  fairly  level,  and  is  sandy, 
and  beneath  this  is  gravel.  The  rain  soaks  into  the  porous 
ground,  and  in  doing  so  dissolves  poisonous  matters  from  the 
manure-heap  and  the  pig-pen,  and  after  it  has  soaked  into 
the  ground  it  remains  there,  since  there  is  a  layer  of  rock  be- 
low, wdiich  will  not  allow  the  water  to  pass.  This  poisoned 
water  collects  here,  and  then  gradually  enters  the  lower  part  of 
the  well.  When  water  is  drawn  from  the  well  it  will  be  easily 
understood  that  it  is  jDartly  the  same  water  which  has  passed 
over  and  through  the  manure-heap  and  the  dirt  of  the  pig-pen 
before  passing  into  the  ground.  The  shading  extending,  on 
the  figure,  from  the  stable  to  the  bottom  of  the  well,  shows  the 
course  which  this  poisoned  water  take3.  Such  water  causes 
typhoid  fever  and  other  diseases. 

It  has  often  hajDpened  that  a  great  many  persons  become  sick 
in  a  village  at  the  same  time.  When  a  great  many  persons  be- 
come sick  at  the  same  time,  and  have  the  same  disease,  an 
epidemic  is  said  to  exist.  Many  epidemics  have  been  found  to 
have  been  produced  by  the  drinking  of  poisoned  well-water. 

131.  The  water  of  a  pure  river  should  be  preferred  to  that  of 
a  well.  But  sometimes  we  have  no  choice  and  must  drink  well- 
water.  In  this  case  we  should  see  that  the  well  is  thirty  feet 
or  more  from  any  inhabited  building,  and  that  no  refuse  or 
slops  of  any  kind  are  allowed  to  soak  into  the  ground.  Such 
refuse  should  be  kept  in  water-tight  barrels  and  carted  off 
regularly.  If  we  are  in  doubt  about  whether  the  water  is  good 
or  not,  we  may  boil  it  thoroughly  ;  this  destroys  the  poison,  and 


FOOD   AND   DRINK.  71 

then  we  are  safe  in  drinking  it.  Varieties  of  filters  are  made, 
which  are  of  value  in  freeing  water  from  dangerous  imj)urities  ; 
not  all  filters,  however,  accomplish  this  purpose. 

132.  Water  which  has  stood  in  leaden  pipes  all  night  dis- 
solves a  little  of  the  lead  ;  hence  when  we  use  the  water  in  the 
morning,  we  should  allow  it  to  run  a  few  minutes  before  using 
any. 

SYNOPSIS. 

Uses  of  Food  and  Drink  : 

1.  To  support  Life. 

2.  To  allow  growth. 

Difierences  in  Food  of  Plants  and  of  xA.nimals  : 

a.  Food  of  Plants  : 

1.  Air. 

2.  Gases  in  the  air. 

3.  Moisture  from  the  ground. 

4.  Salts  from  the  ground. 

b.  Food  of  Animals  : 

1.  Fleshy  food  (meat  and  fish). 

2.  Fatty  food. 

3.  Starchy  and  sugary  food,  including  green  vegetables. 

4.  Water  (forms  three -fourths  weight  of  body). 
Differences  in  Food  of  Different  Animals  : 

a.  Carnivorous — Flesh-eating. 

b.  Herbivorous — -Eating  vegetables,  grass,  grain,  etc. 

c.  Man— Mixed  food. 
Drink : 

Water. 

Tea  and  coffee — Unnecessary  for  children — often  harmful 
Necessity  for  Combining  all  Forms  of  Food  with  Water. 
Some  of  the  Simplest  Forms  of  Food  : 

Meat  and  Fish — Beef  most  common. 

Bread — Should  be  light  and  porous. 

Milk — Most  nutritious — contains  : 

a.  Cream,  making  butter. 

b.  A  material  forming  cheese. 
Eggs — Very  nutritious. 


72  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 

Methods  of  Cooking  : 

1.  Boiled — Placed  in  water  and  heated. 

2.  Stewed — Somewhat  thicker  than  boiled. 

3.  Broiled   /  i  a-      n     ^    i- 

^    x^      L   T  r  — Jiixposed  direct! v  to  rire. 

4.  Eoasted  )  ^ 

5.  Baked — Placed  in  oven. 

6.  Fried — Placed  in  pan  with  fat. 

Boiling,  stewing,  and  broiling  are  most  nutritious. 
Cautions  Regarding  Food  : 

1.  Variety. 

2.  No  improper  food,  such  as  much  candy,  unrii3e  a^^ples, 
etc. 

3.  Regularity  in  meals. 

4.  Plenty  of  time  for  meals. 

5.  No  overloading. 
Drinking-water  : 

Should  be  pure. 
Clear  water  may  not  be  pure. 
Healthy  water  may  be  a  little  cloudy. 
Danger  of  water  from  certain  wells — 

Occurring  through  contamination  from  soil. 
Avoided  by  removal  of  well  to  distance  of  thirty  feet  or 
more  from  habitations,  and  removal  of  refuse  without  allow- 
ing it  to  poison  the  soil. 
Water  from  j^ure  river  preferable. 
Danger  of  poisoning  from  leaden  pipes. 

Purification  of   suspected  water   by  boiling   or   by  passage 
through  porcelain  or  other  filters. 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  Why  must  we  take  food  and  drink  ?  2.  What  must  happen  to 
tlie  food  before  it  can  be  changed  into  our  tissues  ?  3.  Describe  the 
food  upon  which  plants  live.  4.  Do  all  animals  have  the  same  kind 
of  food?  5.  What  difference  is  there  between  the  kind  of  food 
which  the  cow  takes  and  that  which  the  dog  eats  ?  6.  What  is 
meant  by  a  carnivorous  animal  ?  7.  What  is  meant  by  a  herbivorous 
animal?  8.  To  which  class  does  man  belong?  9.  What  is  meant  by 
fleshy  food?     10.  What  is  meant  by  vegetable  food  ?     11.  What  is 


FOOD    AND    DRINK.  73 

farinaceous  food  ?  12.  What  is  starch?  13,  Do  we  find  starch  in 
animals  ?  14.  Why  is  it  necessary  to  eat  green  vegetables  ?  15.  Do 
we  need  fat  in  our  food?  16.  Can  man  exist  on  any  one  form  of  food 
alone  ?  17.  Why  do  we  naturally  eat  butter  with  our  bread  ?  18. 
How  is  bread  prepared ?  19.  Why  is  yeast  added?  20.  Could  we 
exist  on  milk  alone  ?  21.  Why  ?  22.  AVhat  part  of  the  milk  does 
the  cream  represent  ?  23.  What  is  butter  ?  24.  What  is  cheese  ? 
25.  What  can  you  say  about  eggs  as  food  ?  26.  Could  we  eat  the 
same  kind  of  food  every  day  ?  27.  What  follows  when  we  eat  im- 
13roi:)er  food  ?  28.  Why  is  most  of  our  food  cooked  ?  29.  Name 
some  of  the  different  plans  of  cooking  food.  30.  What  makes  our 
drinking-water  unhealthy?  31.  Explain  how  well-water  is  often 
poisoned.     32.  How  can  you  prevent  poisoning  of  well-water  ? 


CHAPTEE   VL 
DIGESTION. 

133.  The  word  digestion  means  the  changing  of  the  food  by 
the  organs  in  the  abdomen,  so  as  to  liquefy  it  in  order  that  the 
blood  can  take  it  up  and  make  tissues  out  of  it.  Digestion 
commences  in  the  mouth  and  ends  in  the  large  intestine.  If 
we  commence  from  above,  the  following  parts  are  met  with  : 
mouth,  throat,  gullet,  stomach,  small  intestine,  pancreas,  liver, 
large  intestine.  All  of  these,  except  the  pancreas  and  the 
liver,  are  hollow  organs  through  which  the  food  passes.  All 
of  these  hollow  or^'ans  taken  to^'ether  form  the  aUmentarii 
canal.  Each  of  the  oro'ans  of  digestion  will  now  be  con- 
sidered. 

THE  MOUTH. 

This  is  the  commencement  of  the  alimentary  canal  (Figs.  36 
and  67)  and  is  the  cavity  in  which  the  food  is  chewed  and 
mixed  with  saliva. 

134.  The  Teeth. — The  chewing  is  done  by  means  of  the 
teeth.  These  are  supported  by  the  jaws  and  occur  in  two  rows, 
an  upper  and  a  lower.  We  do  not  have  the  same  teeth  when 
we  are  grown  that  we  had  when  we  were  very  small ;  all  the 
the  teeth  of  3'oung  children  fall  out ;  they  are  only  temj^orary, 
and  hence  are  called  temporary  or  milk  teeth.  There  are  ten  of 
these  in  each  jaw,  making  twenty  altogether. 

135.  In  the  sixth  year,  or  before,  the  temporar}'^  teeth  begin 
to  fall  out,  and  after  the  sixth  year,  others  commence  to  grow 


DIGESTION. 


75 


to  take  their  places.     These  are  stronger  than  those  which  grow 
first,  and  there  are  more  of  them.     They  are  called  permanent 


l      I/; 


0ltU 

\M»dderi 


Fig.  36.— Outline  Sketch  of  the  Organs  of  Digestion. 


teeth ;  and  there  are  sixteen  in  each  jaw.     After  the  sixth  year, 
the  other  permanent  teeth  gradually  replace  the  temporary  ones, 


76 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 


wliicli  fall  out.  The  last  tooth  to  appear  is  that  placed  farthest 
back,  called  the  wisdom-tooth;  this  comes  about  the  twenty- 
first  3^ear. 

136.   Each  tooth  can  be  divided  into  the  part  which  projects 


Fig.  37. — The  Upper  and  Lower  Jaws  with  the  rerinancnt  Teeth. 


into  the  mouth,  above  the  gams,  called  the  croivjt,  the  j^art  which 
sinks  into  the  jaw,  the  fconj  or  r^oof,  and  the  line  between  these 
two,  called  the  necl\  Teeth  are  composed  of  a  very 
hard  material,  consisting  very  largely  of  lime,  called 
dentine.  They  are  hollow  in  the  centre  (Fig.  38)  and 
this  central  space  is  filled  np  with  a  soft  material 
called  the  jjulp.  On  the  surface  of  the  crown  is  a 
covering  of  very  hard  material,  formed  principally 
of  lime,  called  enamel.  Each  tooth  is  supplied  with 
a  small  nerve  which  enters  it  through  an  oj^ening 
sectTonofoi^  i"  the  cnd  of  the  root.  It  is  the  exposure  of 
Teeth?  *^*^''"  ^^^^^  ucTve  througli  the  formation  of  cavities  in 
the  teeth  which  most  often  gives  rise  to  toothache. 
137.  Upon  examining  the  teeth,  we  find  they  differ  greatly 
in  size  and  shape.  They  are  similar  on  the  two  sides  of  the 
mouth  and  are  the  same  in  the  upper  as  in  the  lower  jaw.     la 


DIGESTION. 


77 


Fig.  37  we  see  the  teeth  in  position  ;  in  Fig.  39  they  are  sep- 
arated, those  on  the  right  of  the  figure  correspondiDg  to 
the  middle  line,  while  those  on  the  left  are  the  back  teeth. 
Commencing  in  the  centre  and.  proceeding  toward  each  side 
(from  right  to  left  in  Fig.  39)  there  are  first  two  sharp-pointed 
teeth,  having  chisel-like  edges,  called  the  incisor  teeth.  Their 
sharp  edges  are  intended  to  cut  the  food  and  to  bite  it  into 
pieces.      Next  to  these  is  a  long,  pointed  tooth,   called   the 


Fig.  39. — Tlie  Permanent  Teeth.  Above  ai'e  those  of  the  ujjper  jaw  ;  below,  those  of  the 
lower  jaw.  The  teeth  of  one  side  of  the  jaw  only  arc  repi-esented.  The  two  teeth  to  the 
right  are  ?ncJ6o?'.v.  The  long  tooth  next  to  these  is  t\\e  canine  tooth.  The  following  two 
are  bicuspids.     The  last  three  (to  the  left)  are  molars. 


canine,  also  known  as  the  eye-tooth.  In  the  dog  and  cat,  and 
animals  of  this  type,  this  tooth  is  of  great  length  and  sharpness, 
and  is  used  for  tearing  meat.  Next  to  the  canine  are  two 
broader  teeth  having  two  sharp  points  each,  known  as  the  hi- 
cuspid  teeth.  Still  further  back  there  are  three  large,  broad 
teeth,  the  surface  of  whose  crowns  is  very  uneven,  but  they  are 
very  strong  ;  they  are  the  molars  and  serve  to  grind  up  the 
food  into  small  particles. 

138.  The  teeth  are  intended  to  chew  the  food  so  that  it  is  in 
small  enough   particles  to   be  received   and   digested   by  the 


78  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 

stomach.  Hasty  eating  results  in  the  swallowing*  of  food  which 
has  not  been  chewed  sufficiently,  thus  causing  indigestion,  pain 
in  the  stomach,  and,  if  continued,  dyspepsia  (which  means  dif- 
ficult digestion). 

139.  Care  of  the  Teeth. — Teeth  are  natural  ornaments  when 
nice  and  healthy ;  but  very  disfiguring  when  dirty  or  de- 
cayed. Teeth  should  be  brushed  every  morning  upon  rising, 
and  every  night  before  retiring  ;  they  should  be  kept  clean  at 
all  times.  If  particles  of  food  lodge  between  the  teeth,  they 
should  be  removed  with  toothpicks  of  wood  or  quill ;  never 
with  pins,  needles,  or  metallic  points.  Teeth  are  apt  to  decay 
and  cavities  to  form,  if  the  general  health  becomes  poor,  or  if 
much  improper  food  be  taken.  By  improper  food  is  meant,  a 
great  many  pickles,  much  candy  and  cake,  and  food  which  is 
difficult  to  digest  or  too  acid.  Teeth  should  not  be  used  to 
crack  nuts  with,  nor  for  anything  but  chewing.  When  cavities 
have  formed  in  the  teeth,  the  dentist  fills  them  with  gold  or 
silver  foil  to  prevent  them  from  decaying  more. 

140.  The  vulcfar  habit  of  chewino*  tobacco  discolors  the 
teeth,  makes  the  breath  offensive,  and  injures  digestion. 


THE    SALIVARY    GLANDS. 

141.  We  give  the  name  glands  to  certain  bodies,  usually 
small  and  round,  in  which  fluid  is  formed  to  be  used  in  various 
ways.  For  instance,  around  the  mouth  there  are  many  such 
glands,  which  form  the  saliva;  that  is,  the  fluid  which  con- 
stantly keeps  the  mouth  wet,  and  moistens  our  food  3  hence 
these  glands  around  the  mouth  are  called  the  salivary  glands. 
There  are  a  great  many  of  them,  but  most  of  them  are  very 
small.     Three,  however,  are  large  and  worth  mentioning. 

142.  The  largest  is  placed  in  front  of  the  lower  end  of  the 
ear  around  the  joint  of  the  lower  jaw,  and  has  a  small  tube 
leading  to  the  mouth.     It  is  called  the  parotid  gland.     Another 


DIGESTION.  79 

is  placed  just  below  the  tongue,  and  is  therefore  Ccalled  the  sub- 
lingual  gland.  A  third  is  found  underneath  the  chin  on  each 
side,  and  is  called  the  submaxillary  gland. 

143.  These  glands  pour  some  of  the  saliva  into  the  mouth 
all  the  time,  but  they  are  especially  active  when  we  use  the 
jaws  either  in  speaking  or  in  eating.  If  it  were  not  for  this 
fluid,  the  mouth  would  soon  feel  dry  after  talking  a  little.  In 
eating  anything  dry,  as  a  cracker,  Ave  notice  that  enough 
fluid  forms  in  the  mouth  to  moisten  it  thoroughly  and  thus  en- 
able us  to  swallow  the  mass.  It  would  be  difficult  to  swallow 
this  if  it  were  dry.  When  the  saliva  is  mixed  well  with  the 
food,  the  stomach  can  act  on  the  food  at  once  and  digest  it 
more  easil}'.  This  is  another  reason  why  we  should  chew  our 
food  well. 

144.  There  is  still  another  reason.  A  small  part  of  starchy- 
food  is  digested  by  the  saliva  before  it  reaches  the  stomach, 
thus  aidino-  the  stomach  in  its  work  of  di^'estion. 

145.  Effects  of  Chewing  Gum. — The  habit  of  con- 
stantly chewing  gum  not  only  looks  bad,  but  by  making  the 
saliva  flow  in  large  quantity  all  the  time,  it  makes  it  thin  and 
watery.  Such  saliva  is  apt  to  be  inefficient  in  the  proper  per- 
formance of  its  work  during  meals.  This  habit  is,  therefore, 
not  only  vulgar,  but  unhealthy. 


THE   THROAT. 

146.  This  is  the  wide  part  of  the  mouth  behind,  into  which 
the  food  passes  after  it  has  been  thoroughly  chewed  and  when 
we  swallow  it.  While  we  are  swallowing,  it  passes  into  the 
throat.  Once  swallowed,  the  food  passes  into  the  canal  leading 
to  the  stomach,  the  gullet^  or  oesophagus ;  tlience  it  continues 
its  way  without  our  knowledge  or  will  (Fig.  36). 


80  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 

THE   TONGUE. 

147.  This  is  also  one  of  the  organs  of  digestion,  since  by  its 
movement  the  food  is  rolled  around  in  the  mouth  and  mixed 
thoroughly  with  saliva.  The  tongue  also  assists  in  swallowing. 
This  organ  will  be  described  under  the  special  senses,  as  it  is 
also  tlie  organ  of  taste. 

THE    GULLET,    OR    (ESOPHAGUS. 

148.  This  is  a  long  tube  (Fig.  36)  which  connects  the  mouth 
and  throat  with  the  stomach.  Its  walls  are  formed  of  rings  of 
muscle-tissue.  When  theser  rings  contract,  the  food  is  forced 
downward  until  it  reaches  the  stomach. 

THE   STOMACH. 

149.  The  stomach  is  a  bag  about  a  foot  long,  placed  in  the 
upper  part  of  the  abdomen,  just  below  the  diaphragm.  The 
latter,  as  has  already  been  mentioned,  is  the  sheet  of  muscle- 
tissue  separating  the  abdomen  from  the  chest.  The  stomach 
commences  near  the  middle  of  the  body,  and  then  extends  over 
toward  the  right.  There  are  two  openings  into  the  stomach. 
One  is/o?'  the  entrance  of  food,  which  is  carried  by  the  gullet 
from  the  mouth ;  and  in  order  to  reach  the  stomach,  the  gul- 
let must,  of  course,  pass  through  the  diaphragm.  The  other 
opening  of  the  stomach  is  at  the  farther  end,  and  allows  the  food 
to  pass  on  into  the  intestines  after  the  stomach  has  done  its 
work.  Around  this  opening  is  a  narrowing  which  remains 
closed  until  the  food  is  ready  to  be  sent  to  the  intestines. 
This  narrowing  is  produced  by  a  thickening  of  the  tissue  at 
this  point,  and  is  called  the  pj/loi'us. 

150.  The  wall  of  the  stomach  is  not  very  thick,  but  it  is  very 
strong.  On  the  outside  there  is  a  smooth,  shining  coat,  which 
is  merely  a  part  of  a  membrane  lining  the  whole  inside  of  the 


DIGESTION. 


81 


abdomen  and  the  organs  within  it.    This  membrane  is  known  as 
the  peritoneum.     On  the  inside   there   is   a  soft,  velvety   coat, 


Fig.  40.— The   Stomach,  Showing  the  Layer  of  Muscle-tissue  by  which  it  Contracts  and 

Propels  the  Food. 


called  the  mucous  layer  (Fig.  41).     We  often  meet  with  the 
term  mucous  membrane  in  anatomy.    It  refers  to  a  soft,  smooth, 


Fig.  41.— The  Inner  Surface  of  the  Stomach,  Showing  the  Mucous  Layer  Arranged  in  Folds 


82 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 


velvety  membrane  which  is  called  the  mucous  membrane  be- 
cause it  forms  a  watery,  slip^Dery  fluid  called  mucus ;  the  fluid 
from  the  mouth  between  meals,  and  the  fluid  which  runs  from 
the  nose  are  examples  of  mucus.  Between  these  two  surfaces, 
the  mucous  and  the  peritoneum,  is  a  layer  of  muscle-tissue 
which  forms  the  main  part  of  the  thickness  of  the  stomach 
(Fig.  40). 

151.  Gastric  Juice. — The  inner,  or  mucous  layer  of  the 
stomach  is  arranged  in  a  series  of  folds  which  are  especially 
marked  when  the  stomach  is  empty.  It  is  usually  of  a  pink  or 
a  grayish  color,  but  its  color  and  appearance  differ  greatly,  de- 
pending upon  whether  it  contains  food  or  not.     When  food 

reaches  the  stomach,  it  excites  it, 
and  the  soft  lining  then  begins  to 
swell,  and  becomes  reddened.  This 
mucous  layer,  when  looked  at  under 
the  microscope,  shows  a  large  num- 
ber of  small  dots  or  o^Denings. 
AVhen  food  is  in  the  stomach,  we 
can  see  droj^s  of  fluid  escape  from 
these  dot-like  openings.  This  fluid 
is  called  the  gastric  j uice. 

152.  The  Gastric  Tubules 
and  the  Gastric  Juice.— The 
gastric  juice  is  a  very  important 
fluid  ;  and  it  is  found  in  the  stom- 
ach only  when  food  is  present, 
which  food  causes  it  to  flow.  Of 
course  the  lining  of  the  stomach 
is  never  dry,  but  it  is  moistened 
onl}'  with  mucus,  except  when 
excited  by  food,  when  as  just  stated  gastric  juice  begins 
to  flow.  Upon  examining  this  internal  laj^er  of  the  stomach 
under  the  microscope,  we  find  thousands  of  small  tubes,  lined 
by  little  oblong  bodies,  which  we  call  cells  (Figs.  42  and  43). 


Fig.  42. — A  Section  of  the  Lining 
Membrane  of  the  Stomach  Very 
Highly  Magnified,  Showing  the  Gas- 
tric Tubules  in  Position. 


DIGESTION. 


83 


These  cells  poar  the  gastric  juice  into  the  small  tubes,  aud  from 
these  it  passes  into  the  stomach  and  is  mixed  with  the  food. 
Bat,  it  may  be  asked,  from  what  do  these  cells  take  the  gastric 
juice?  They  get  it  from  the  blood.  There  are  tiny  blood- 
vessels everywhere,  and  certain  portions  of  the  blood  pass 
through  the  w^alls  of  the  blood-vessels  into  the  cells, 
and  are  mixed  there  wdth  other  substances  ;  and  in 
this  way  the  gastric  juice  results. 

153.  Pepsin. — The  substance  in  the  gastric  juice 
which  enables  it  to  digest  fleshy  food  is  called  pepsin. 

154.  Function  of  the  Gastric  Juice- — The 
work  of  the  gastric  juice  is  to  digest  food.  But  it 
does  not  digest  every  sort  of  food.  It  loill  digest  only 
fleshy  food.  Vegetable  food  is  digested  elsewhere — 
a  little  by  the  saliva,  but  chiefly  in  the  small  intes- 
tine. Fat,  also,  remains  undigested  in  the  stomach, 
and  passes  on  to  be  digested  in  the  small  intestine. 

155.  (1.)  Uses  of  the  Stomach.— One  of  the 
uses  we  have  just  stated,  namely,  to  digest  the  fleshy 
part  of  the  food. 

156.  (2.)  The  second  use  of  the  stomach  is  to  be  a 
storehouse  for  the  food.  It  takes  between  two  and 
three  hours  to  digest  an  ordinary  meal.  If  there 
Avere  no  large  bag  in  which  the  food  could  be  kept 

until  digested  we  should  have  to  keep  eating  little  by  little  all 
the  time.  The  large  size  of  the  stomach  also  allows  the  gastric 
juice  to  be  mixed  quickly  and  thoroughly  with  the  food,  and 
thus  digestion  takes  place  more  quickly  than  it  otherwise  would. 

157.  (3.)  Still  another  use  of  the  stomach  is  to  churn  the 
food,  and  to  roll  it  about  so  as  to  grind  it  into  the  smallest 
particles  and  mix  it  with  the  gastric  juice.  One  of  the  coats  of 
the  stomach  consists  of  muscle-tissue,  and  this  coat  causes  these 
motions  of  the  stomach.  Besides,  the  lining  of  the  stomach  has 
a  large  number  of  raised  lines  or  ridges  (Fig.  41),  which  make 
the  breaking-up  of  the  food  still  easier. 


Fig.  43,— 
One  of  the 
Gastnc  Tu- 
bules. Very 
Highly  Mag- 
nified, Show- 
ing the  Cen- 
tral Canal 
and  the  Cells 
Lining  the 
Tubule. 


84  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 

158.  Some  of  the  lower  animals,  as  the  ox  and  cow,  have /bwr 
stomachs.  Such  animals  swallow  grass  and  ha}'  without  thor- 
oughly chewing  them.  Afterward  this  food  passes  back  into  the 
mouth  again.  It  is  then  chewed  over  again,  swallowed,  and 
after  passing  through  the  series  of  stomachs,  is  finally  digested. 

159.  Effect  of  Tobacco  on  the  Stomach.— When  a  per- 
son smokes  tobacco  for  the  first  time,  it  makes  him  sick  at  his 
stomach.  He  may  get  used  to  the  tobacco  after  a  while  ;  but 
still,  if  he  smokes  much,  he  has  the  same  disagreeable  sensation. 
Many  persons  make  the  stomach  weak  and  delicate,  and  spoil 
the  appetite,  by  smoking  and  chewing  tobacco. 

160.  Effect  of  Alcohol  on  the  Stomach. — Alcohol  irri- 
tates the  stomach  and  reddens  the  lining.  After  a  while  it 
hardens  it,  thins  it,  and  renders  it  unfit  to  digest  the  food 
properly. 

161.  The  Discovery  of  How  the  Stomach  Acts. — 
Many  years  ago,  a  Canadian  named  St.  Martin  was  shot  in  the 
abdomen.  He  recovered  with  a  permanent  opening  leading 
from  the  outside  into  the  stomach,  through  which  the  doctors 
could  Avatch  and  see  what  hap^Dened  after  eating.  They  found 
that  ordinarily  it  took  the  stomach  from  two  to  three  hours  to 
finish  its  work,  and  to  discharge  what  it  could  not  digest  into 
the  small  intestine  or  bowel.  This  man  lived  a  great  many 
years  with  the  curious  opening,  and  was  quite  strong  and 
healthy. 

162.  Certain  kinds  of  food  require  a  longer  time  than  other 
kinds  for  digestion,  and  hence  we  call  them  heavy  or  indigest- 
ible;  other  food  is  digested  very  quickly,  and  is  called  liglit,  or 
easily  digestible.  As  examples  of  heavy  food  ma}^  be  men- 
tioned, hard-boiled  eggs,  pies,  cheese,  etc.  As  examples  of 
easily  digested  food,  there  are  milk,  soft-boiled  eggs,  toast, 
broiled  steak,  etc. 


DIGESTION.  85 


THE  BOWELS,  OR  INTESTINES. 

163.  These  consist  of  a  long,  hollow  tube,  about  twenty-five 
feet  long,  commencing  at  the  stomach  (Fig.  36).  Where  stom- 
ach and  intestines  meet  is  a  narrow  opening,  which  is  closed, 
except  when  the  stomach  has  digested  what  it  can  of  the  food, 
and  wishes  to  empty  what  is  left  into  the  intestines. 

164.  This  narrowing  is  called,  as  has  already  been  mentioned, 
the  pylorus,  meaning  gatekeeper,  and  it  will  be  seen  that  it  is 
well-named,  for  it  guards  the  outlet  of  the  stomach.  The  rem- 
nants of  food  which  the  stomach  refuses  to  digest  pass  this 
point  in  the  form  of  a  soft,  creamy  mass. 


SUBDIVISIONS  OF  THE  INTESTINES. 

165.  The  intestines  can  be  divided  into  three  parts  ;  the  first 
part,  which  is  next  to  the  stomach,  is  called  the  duodenum,  a 
long  word,  which  was  given  to  it  in  olden  times  because  it  is 
about  as  long  as  twelve  fingers  put  side  by  side,  so  that  this 
part  of  the  bowel  is  quite  short.  The  second  part  is  very  long 
— twenty  feet — and  forms  the  principal  part  of  the  bowels.  It 
is  called  the  small  intestine^  and  the  word  small  is  used  because 
it  is  narrower  than  the  rest.  The  remainder  of  the  bowels 
(about  five  feet  long)  is  the  last  portion,  called  the  large  intes- 
tine, because  it  is  wider  than  the  rest. 

166.  The  intestines  are  twenty-five  feet  long.  In  order  that 
they  may  be  contained  in  the  abdomen  they  are  folded  together 
many  times  around  a  stem  which  is  attached  to  the  backbone. 
In  this  way  they  can  move  around  somewhat,  and  yet  they  are 
kept  in  place  by  being  held  to  the  backbone.  It  will  be  seen 
later  why  it  is  necessary  that  they  should  be  allow^ed  a  certain 
amount  of  motion  so  as  to  cause  the  food  to  move  on. 

167.  The  intestines  have  the  same   coats   as   the    stomach. 


86  AKAT03IY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 

There  is  on  the  outside  a  smooth,  shining  coat  (the  jjeritoneum). 
On  the  iijside  is  a  soft,  smooth,  velvety  coat  (the  mucous 
coat).  Between  these  two  there  is  a  coat  formed  of  muacle- 
fibres,  which  run  around  the  intestine  in  circles.  There  is 
much  less  muscle-tissue  in  the  walls  of  the  intestine  than  in 
those  of  the  stomach. 

168.  The  Peritoneum. — The  shining  outside  coat  of  the 
intestine  is  very  important,  and  is  formed  of  the  same  layer  of 
tissue  that  lines  the  whole  abdomen.  The  whole  inside  of  the 
abdomen  and  the  outside  of  all  the  organs  within  it  are  covered 
with  this  smooth  sheet  of  tissue  which  we  call  the  j9er^7o?^e^^??l. 
This  covering  is  necessary  so  that  the  organs  can  move  one 
upon  another  wdthout  pain,  injury,  or  friction.  The  smooth 
surface  is  always  kept  moist  by  fluid. 

1G9.  Motion  of  the  Intestines. — The  intestines  are  never 
quiet.  They  are  in  motion  all  the  time.  This  motion  resem- 
bles that  of  a  w^orm,  slow,  gradual,  and  creeping.  It  is  ac- 
complished by  means  of  the  muscle-fibres  Avhich  exist  in  the 
walls.  Tlie  object  of  this  motion  is  to  propel  the  food  along 
so  as  to  spread  it  out  and  hasten  the  absorption  of  the  liquid 
and  nourishing  portions  of  the  digested  food. 

170.  Projections  on  the  Inner  Surface  of  the  Intes- 
tines.— The  inner  surface  of  the  intestines  looks  pinkish  and 
is  velvety.  It  has  a  large  number  of  vaJcea  or  ridges  (Fig.  44) 
running  across  it,  which  prevent  the  food  from  passing  along 
too  rapidly,  so  that  all  the  nutritious  portions  may  be  absorbed. 
Besides  these  projections  we  find  that  the  velvety  appearance 
is  due  to  the  presence  of  millions  of  other  Yery  small  jjrojections 
(Fig.  45),  which  resemble  hairs  in  shape,  but  are  soft,  and 
■Nvlien  looked  at  wdth  the  microscope  are  found  covered  with 
cells.  "We  also  find,  when  we  examine  the  mucous  lining  of 
the  intestines,  a  great  many  small  tubes  similar  to  those  found 
in  the  stomach. 

171.  The  Work  of  the  Intestines. — The  intestines  finish 
the  digestion  of  the  food.     They  also  afford  a  lengthy  surface 


DIGESTION. 


87 


over  which  the  liquid  and  digested  nutritious  parts  of  the  food 
can  pass  and  be  absorbed  by  the  blood,  which  then  brings  them 
to  different  parts  of  the  body.  We  found  that  a  small  part  of 
starchy  food  is  digested  by  the  saliva  and  that  the  stomach  di- 
gests the  fleshy  portions  of  the  food.  The  intestines  digest  the 
rest,  namely  :  (1)  the  larger  part  of  starchy  food  which  is  not 
affected  by  the  saliva,  (2)  the  entire  fatty  portion  of  the  food, 
and  (3)  any  remnants  of  fleshy  food  which  the  stomach  may 
have  failed  to  act  upon. 

172.  Starch  cannot  be  taken  up  by  the  blood  until  it  has 


mm -t-A'r-A-M  ■-.J 

H-^n    <  j;e-;:yi.-.y//'-|^..'/^ 


Pig.  44.— The  Inner  Surface  of  the  Small 
Intestine,  Showing  the  Valves  or  Ridges. 


Fig.  45.— The  Small  Hair-like  Projections 
from  the  Inner  Surface  of  the  Intestine. 
(Very  highly  magnified.) 


become  changed  into  sugar.  Fat  must  also  first  become  al- 
tered by  fluids  in  the  intestines  before  the  blood  can  absorb 
it. 

173.  Openings  into  the  Small  Intestine.— The  main 
work  of  the  intestine  takes  place  at  the  uj^per  part  near  the 
stomach.  Just  below  the  stomach  we  find  two  openings  leading 
into  the  part  of  the  intestine  known  as  the  duodenum.  One 
of  these  openings  is  the  canal  from  the  liver  and  the  gall-bladder, 


88  AI^ ATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY.    AND   HYGIENE. 

the  other  is  the  canal  from  the  pancreas.  Previous  to  discussing 
digestiou  iu  general,  the  organs  furnishing  these  two  canals 
will  be  considered. 

THE  LIVER   AND   THE   GALL-BLADDER. 


Fig.  46. — The  Liver,  Upper  Surface. 


174.  The  liver  (Figs.  36,  46,  and  47)  is  a  large  organ  of  a 
brownish  color,  placed  in  the  upper  part  of  the  abdomen,  to  the 
right  of  the  stomach.     It  is  just  below  the  diaphragm  and  the 


Fig.  47.— The  Livli,  Undei  feiuface  ;  Btluw,  tlic  (.ill  bl.idder  is  Seen. 

lower  ribs,  which  cover  it  in  front  and  abiDve  by  forming  an  arch 
over  it.     The  liver  is  very  heavy  ;  it  is  smooth  on  the  outside, 


DIGESTIOT^. 


89 


and  covered  by  the  same  smooth  membrane  which  covers  all  the 
organs  of  the  abdomen,  viz.,  the  peritoneum.  It  is  subdivided 
by  deep  lines  into  five  sections  called  lobes. 

175.  Uses  of  the  Liver. — The  liver  is  a  very  important 
organ.     Its  uses  are, 

(1.)  To  make  the  bile. 

(2.)  To  purify  the  blood  which  passes  through  it. 
(3.)  To  add  a  certain  nourishing  body  to  the  blood  which 
passes  through  it. 

176.  The  Gall-bladder  and  Bile.— If  we  look  at  the  liver 
under  the  microscope,  so  that  it  is  \evy  much  enlarged,  we  shall 
see  that  it  is  formed  entirely  of 
small  cells,  like  cubes,  packed  one 
against  another  (Fig.  48).  These 
cells  manufacture  the  bile,  which  is 
then  collected  by  small  tubes. 
Along  the  lower  edge  of  the  liver  a 
bag  about  the  size  of  an  egg  will  be 
seen.  This  is  called  the  gall-bladder 
(Figs.  36  and  47),  and  the  tubes  which 
collect  the  bile  empty  into  it.  This 
bag  keeps  the  bile  until  it  is  wanted. 
The  liver  is  making  bile  all  the  time  and  yet  the  intestines  do 
not  need  it  except  when  food  is  present ;  hence  there  must  be 
such  a  storehouse. 

177.  Action  of  the  Bile. — After  the  stomach  has  finished 
its  work  and  the  changed  food  has  passed  into  the  intestine, 
the  bile  which  has  been  stored  up  in  the  gall-bladder  is  allowed 
to  escape  into  the  intestine  by  a  small  tube  leading  to  one  of 
the  two  openings  in  the  duodenum  already  described.  The 
bile  is  of  a  green  or  brown  color.  We  do  not  know  jDrecisely 
what  the  bile  does  to  the  food  ;  but  we  are  certain  that  bile 
must  be  mixed  with  it,  for  if  it  is  absent  a  person  cannot  live 
very  long.  Sometimes  bile  gets  into  the  blood  and  causes  a 
yellow  color  of  the  skin,  which  we  call  jaundice. 


Fig, 


48.  —  The    Liver-cells,   Very 
Highly  Magnified. 


90  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 

178.  There  is  a  great  deal  of  blood  passing  through  the 
liver,  which  is  purified  in  its  passage  by  the  removal  of  certain 
unhealthy  parts. 

179.  After  a  meal  there  would  be  a  great  deal  of  nourishing 
matter  thrown  into  the  blood  all  at  once  ;  and  this  would  soon 
be  used  up  and  then  there  would  be  no  more  until  the  next 
meal.  In  order  to  prevent  this,  the  liver  takes  care  of  a  large 
amount  of  sugar  and  keeps  it  stored  up,  and  then  gradually  lets 
it  return  little  by  little  into  the  blood. 

180.  The  Unhealthy  Liver. — Many  sicknesses  are  caused 
by  changes  in  the  liver.  If  w^e  eat  too  much  at  a  time,  or  eat 
food  which  is  too  rich,  as  many  wealthy  people  do,  the  liver  be- 
comes diseased  and  does  not  remove  the  impurities  of  the 
blood  as  it  should  ;  and  these  then  remain  in  the  blood  and 
give  much  trouble.  Perhaps  some  of  you  have  seen  old  gen- 
tlemen limp  along  with  the  aid  of  a  cane,  unable  to  walk 
well  because  their  big  toes  are  swollen  and  sore  ;  they  then 
have  gout  from  too  rich  food,  too  much  wine,  and  too  little  exer- 
cise. 

181.  The  Drunkard's  Liver. — The  liver  suffers  very 
much  as  the  result  of  alcoholic  drinking.  It  sometimes  grows 
too  large,  and  sometimes  gets  too  small.  The  blood  cannot 
flow  through  it  as  it  should  ;  and  so  the  liver  cannot  do  its 
work  properly.  Thus  the  entire  body  suffers,  and  the  most 
serious  symptoms  trouble  the  unfortunate  man  who  leads  the 
life  of  a  drunkard. 

THE  PANCREAS. 

182.  This  is  one  of  the  organs  of  digestion  (Fig.  3G).  The 
pancreas  of  the  calf  is  sold  by  the  butcher  as  sweetbread.  This 
organ  is  not  large,  but  is  very  important.  It  is  placed  just 
below  the  stomach.  Its  work  is  to  prepare  a  fluid  called  the 
pancreatic  juice.  This  is  made  by  cells,  just  as  in  the  liver. 
Small  tubes  then  collect  the  fluid  and    open   into  one   large 


DIGESTION.  91 

tube  which  empties  into  the  commencement  of  the  small  in- 
testine. 

183.  Uses  of  the  Pancreatic  Juice. — The  pancreatic 
juice  digests  all  parts  of  the  food  which  are  left  after  the  saliva 
and  the  gastric  juice  of  the  stomach  have  acted  upon  them. 
Thus  it  digests  fat  and  starch,  and  it  will  also  digest  any  of 
the  Jleshy  food  which  the  stomach  has  neglected  to  change.  It 
is  consequent^  a  very  important  fluid. 

ABSORPTION. 

184.  All  the  fluids  of  digestion  just  described — the  saliva, 
gastric  juice,  and  pancreatic  juice — simply  change  the  chewed 
food,  so  that  the  blood  can  take  it  u^d  or  absorb  it  as  nourish- 
ment ;  and  this  action  of  these  fluids  is  called  digestion.  There 
still  remains  to  be  seen  how  the  blood  absorbs  this  nourish- 
ment, and  what  it  does  with  it. 

185.  If  we  look  at  one  of  the  smallest  blood-vessels  (Fig.  53) 
it  will  be  found  that  the  walls  consist  of  the  very  thinnest 
membrane,  and  that  this  allows  fluids  to  pass  through  quite 
readily.  In  the  lining  of  the  stomach  and  intestines  we  find  a 
great  many  of  these  tiny  blood-vessels  ;  as  the  food  reaches 
these  places  and  has  become  digested,  it  passes  into  the  blood- 
vessels and  is  carried  with  the  blood  to  the  different  parts  of 
the  body,  to  be  used  in  forming  and  building  up  tissues  which 
are  constantly  being  consumed. 

186.  Lacteal s. — Besides  passing  directly  into  the  blood- 
vessels, the  digested  food  also  passes  into  certain  other  tubes 
of  very  small  size,  like  blood-vessels,  except  that  they  do  not 
contain  blood.  These  small  tubes  are  called  lacteals,  from  a 
Latin  word  meaning  milk,  because  the  nourishing  fluid  which 
they  carry  and  afterward  add  to  the  blood  looks  white,  like 
milk,  during  digestion.  These  lacteals  finally  empty  into  large 
reins  at  the  lower  part  of  the  neck  (Fig.  62). 


92  AKATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 

HABITS  WHICH  ARE  INJURIOUS  TO  PROPER  DIGESTION. 

187.  (1.)  Eating  too  rapidly.  When  the  food  is  eaten  too 
rapicll}^  it  cannot  be  chewed  properly,  and  the  result  is  that  it 
is  swallowed  in  large  pieces.  The  stomach  has  great  difficulty 
in  digesting  these  large  pieces  and  thus  indigestion  mid  dyspep- 
sia result  if  the  practice  be  continued. 

188.  (2.)  Eating  too  much  at  a  time.  This  gives  the  organs 
of  digestion  too  much  work  to  do,  and  on  this  account  all  the 
food  cannot  be  dio-ested.     We  should  not  continue  to  eat  until 

O 

we  feel  heavy  and  uncomfortable,  but  should  stop  before  we 
feel  this  \yn.y. 

189.  (3.)  Eating  too  many  sweets  and  sours.  While  a  pickle 
occasionally  at  meals,  or  candy  and  cake  now  and  then,  will  do 
no  harm,  if  these  things  are  taken  constantly  they  are  injurious, 
because  they  destroy  the  appetite  for  nourishing  food. 

190.  (4.)  Chewing  gum  gives  the  salivary  glands  too  much 
work,  and  thus  the  saliva  soon  becomes  too  thin  and  does  not 
act  as  it  should. 

191.  (5.)  A  large  amount  of  ice -water.  A  little  ice-water,  taken 
slowly,  will  do  no  harm,  whether  during  meals  or  at  other  times  ; 
but  to  drink  down  a  gobletful  rapidly  when  the  body  is  heated 
is  very  unhealthy,  as  it  chills  the  stomach  and  delays  diges- 
tion. 

192.  (6.)  Violent  exercise  immediately  after  a  meal.  This 
should  not  be  indulged  in,  for  at  that  time  the  stomach  needs 
all  the  blood  it  can  get ;  and  violent  exercise  drives  too  great  a 
proportion  to  the  muscles. 

193.  (7.)  Severe  brain  work  directly  after  meals  is  not  good. 

194.  (8.)  Bathing  should  not  be  indulged  in  within  two  hours 
after  an  ordinary  meal. 

195.  (9.)  Excitement  of  any  kind,  as  good  news  or  bad  news 
just  before  a  meal,  usually  takes  away  our  aj^petite.  If  Ave  eat, 
nevertheless,  the  food  will  not  be  digested,  or  only  very  imper- 
fectly. 


DIGESTION.  93 

196.  (10.)  Alcoholic  drink  makes  food  less  digestible,  espe- 
cially if  it  be  strong  drink ;  and  it  also  irritates  the  stomach 
needlessly. 

197.  (11.)  Smoking  will  destroy  the  ai^petite  and  interfere 
with  digestion  in  many  persons. 

THE   SPLEEN. 

198.  The  spleen  (Fig.  36)  is  not  one  of  the  organs  of  diges- 
tion ;  but  its  description  will  be  given  at  this  place,  because  it 
is  placed  in  the  abdomen.  It  is  a  round,  flattened  organ,  solid, 
and  contains  a  great  deal  of  blood.  It  is  found,  on  the  left 
side  of  the  abdomen  just  underneath  the  lower  ribs.  Its  use 
is  not  exactly  known  ;  but  lately,  however,  it  has  been  thought 
to  take  part  in  supplying  the  globules  to  the  blood.  It  be- 
comes enlarged  in  all  malarial  diseases,  and  then  sometimes 
reaches  an  enormous  size. 

SYNOPSIS. 


Digestion— 

-The  chani 

ging  of  the  food  and  its  liquefaction. 

so  that 

the  blood  can 

absorb  it. 

Organs  of  Digestion  : 

Month. 

Teeth. 

Salivary  Glands. 

Tongue. 

Throat. 

Gullet. 

-^» 

Stomach. 
Intestines. 

c  Duodenum, 

<  Small  Intestine. 

'  Laro-e  Intestine. 

Liver. 
Pancreas. 
Mouth — To  chew  the  food  and  mix  it  with  saliva. 

a.  Tongue — Assists  in  mixing  food  with  saUva  and  in 
swallowing. 

b.  Teeth: 

J    j  a.  Temporary  or  milk  teeth — ten  in  each  jaw. 
I  b.  Permanent — sixteen  in  each  jaw. 


94  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 

Four  incisors. 
Two  canine. 
Four  biciisi)id. 
Six  molars. 

2.  Divisible  into 

(  Crown. 

a.  Parts  ;   <  Neck. 

(  Root. 
(  Enamel. 

b.  Structure  :  ■<  Dentine. 

(  Pulp  (cavity). 

3.  Care  of— Should  be  kept  clean. 

Brushing. 
Toothpicks. 
Improj)er  use. 
Tobacco, 
c.  Salivary  Glands  : 

1.  Location  : 

(1.)  Parotid — In  front  and  below  eai\ 
(2.)  Sublingual — Below  tongue. 
(3.)  Submaxillary — Below  jaw. 

2.  Saliva. 

(1.)  Produced  during  chewing, 
(2.)  Moistens  food. 
(3.)  Digests  a  part  of  starchy  food. 
(4.)  Keeps  mouth  moist. 
(5.)  Watery,  clear  fluid. 
(6.)  Necessity  for  thorough  chewingc 
(7.)  Effect  of  chewing  gum. 
Throat : 

1.  Between  mouth  and  gullet. 

2.  Concerned  in  swallowing. 
Tongue : 

1.  Mixes  food  with  saliva, 

2.  Assists  in  swallowing, 

3.  Organ  of  taste. 
Gullet  or  (Esophagus  : 

1.  Connects  throat  and  stomach. 

2.  Formed  of  rings  of  musch^-tissue. 

3.  These  force  food  into  stomach. 


DIGESTION.  95 

Stomach  : 

1.  Position — Upper    part   of    abdomen,   just  below  dia- 
phragm. 

2.  Openings — One  for  entrance  of  food  ;   other  (pylorus) 
into  intestines. 

3.  Coats  : 

(1.)  Outer — Peritoneum. 
(2.)  Middle— Muscle-tissue. 
(3.)  Inner — ^Mucous  membrane, 

4.  Uses : 

(1.)  To  secrete  gastric  juice,  which — 
a.  Is  formed  during  digestion. 
h.  Digests  fleshy  food. 

c.  Contains  joepsin. 

d.  Is  formed  in  the  gastric  tubules. 
(2.)  K  storehouse  for  the  food. 

(3. )  To  churn  the  food  and  break  it  into  small  particles. 

5.  Effects  of  alcohol  and  tobacco — Alcohol  irritates,  to- 
bacco sickens. 

6.  Discovery  of  action — St.  Martin  ;  opening  in  stomach. 

7.  Digestibility — Heavy  and  light  food. 
The  Intestines  : 

1.  Connection  with  stomach — By  pyloi'us. 

2.  Subdivisions: 

a.  Duodenum. 

b.  Small  intestine. 

c.  Large  intestine. 

3.  Length — Twenty -five  feet. 

4.  Attachment — To  backbone. 

5.  Coats — Same  as  stomach  : 

a.  Outer  or  x)eritoneum. 
h.  Middle  or  muscle  tissue, 
c.  Inner  or  mucous  membrane, 

6.  Motion — To  propel  food  and  digested  fluids. 

7.  Projections  from  inner  surface  : 

a.  Valves  or  ridges. 

b.  Hair-like  projections. 

8.  Function  : 

a.  Digest  starchy  food. 


96  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE 


h.  Digest  fatty  food, 
c.  Digest  remnants  of  fleshy  food. 
9.  Openings  : 

a.  From  liver  and  gall-bladder. 

b.  From  pancreas. 
The  Liver  and  Gall-bladder  : 

1.  Position — Upper  part  of  abdomen,  to  right   of  stom- 
ach. 

2.  Descrii^tion — Large,  solid,  brownish,  subdivided  into 
five  sections  or  lobes. 

3.  Uses: 

a.  To  make  bile. 

}>.  To  purify  the  blood. 

c.  To  add  nourishment  to  the  blood  ;  storehouse. 

4.  Bile: 

a.  Color— Greenish  or  brownish. 

b.  Action — Not  exactly  known. 

c.  If  gets  into  blood — Jaundice. 

5.  Unhealthy  Liver — From  too  rich  food,  too  much  wine, 
too  little  exercise ;  Gout. 

6.  Drunkard's  Liver — Too  large  or  too  small. 
The  Pancreas : 

1.  Position — Just  below  stomach. 

2.  Use — To  form  pancreatic  Juice,  which — 

a.  Digests  fat. 

b.  Digests  starch. 

c.  Digests  remains  of  fleshy  food. 

Absori:)tion — The  taking  up  of  digested  food  in  fluid  form  by  the 
blood  and  lymphatics  : 

1.  By  blood-vessels. 

2.  By  lymphatic  vessels. 

3.  By  lacteals. 

Habits  Injurious  to  Proj)er  Digestion  : 

1.  Eating  too  quickly. 

2.  Eating  too  much  at  a  time. 

3.  Eating  too  many  sweets  and  sours. 

4.  Chewing  gum. 

5.  Ice-water  in  large  amount. 

C.  Violent  exercise  immediately  after  meals. 


DIGESTION.  97 

7.  Severe  brain-work  immediately  after  meals. 

8.  Bathing  after  meals. 

9.  Excitement  before,  during,  or  after  meals. 

10.  Alcoholic  drink. 

11.  Smoking  or  chewing  tobacco. 
The  Si^leen  : 

1.  Description— Bound,  flattened,  solid  organ  full  of  blood 

2.  Position — Left  side  of  abdomen,  underneath  lower  ribs. 

3.  Use — Probably  to  supply  globules  to  the  Ijlood. 

4.  Enlarged — In  malarial  diseases. 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  is  meant  by  the  word  digestion?  2.  Name  the  organs 
of  digestion  ?  3.  What  are  the  teeth  for  ?  4.  What  are  the  tem- 
porary teeth  ?  5.  When  do  we  begin  to  have  our  permanent  teeth  ? 
6.  How  many  permanent  teeth  are  there  in  each  jaw  ?  7.  What  are 
the  parts  of  each  tooth?  8.  Are  the  teeth  solid  or  hollow?  9. 
What  names  are  given  to  the  different  teeth  ?  10.  Which  are  the 
incisor  teeth,  what  is  their  shape  and  their  use  ?  11.  What  is  pecu- 
liar about  the  canine  tooth?  12.  What  about  the  bicuspid  teeth  ? 
13.  What  about  the  molar  teeth  ?  14.  Of  which  three  parts  does 
each  tooth  consist  ?  15.  What  is  the  proper  way  of  taking  care  of 
the  teeth  ?  16.  What  effect  has  tobacco  on  the  teeth?  17.  What 
are  the  salivary  glands  ?  18.  Where  are  they  found  ?  19.  What  is 
their  use  ?  20.  What  is  saliva  ?  21.  What  are  the  uses  of  saliva  ? 
22.  What  are  the  effects  of  chewing  gum  upon  the  saliva?  23. 
Where  is  the  gullet  ?  24.  Where  does  it  lead  to  ?  25.  What  is  the 
shape  of  the  stomach?  26.  Where  is  it  placed?  27.  What  o^Den- 
ings  are  there  in  the  stomach  ?  28.  What  coats  are  there  to  the 
wall  of  the  stomach  ?  29.  How  does  the  inside  of  the  stomach  look 
when  it  is  emj)ty  ?  30.  How  does  it  look  w^hen  food  enters  the 
stomach  ?  31.  What  is  the  gastric  Juice  ?  32.  How  is  the  gastric 
juice  made  ?  33.  Of  what  use  is  the  gastric  juice  ?  34.  When  does 
the  gastric  juice  flow  ?  35.  What  kind  of  food  is  digested  by  the 
gastric  juice?  36.  What  is  j)epsin  ?  37.  What  are  the  three  uses 
of  the  stomach  ?  38.  Have  any  animals  more  than  one  stomach  ? 
39.  How  does  the  ox  digest  hay?  40.  What  effects  have  tobacco 
and  alcohol  upon  the  stomach?     41.  How  was  the  way  in  which  the 


98  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 

stomacli  acts  in  man  discovered  ?  42.  What  is  meant  by  heavy 
food?  43.  What  is  meant  by  light  food?  44.  Give  examples  of 
each.  45.  What  is  another  name  for  the  bowels  ?  46.  How  long 
are  the  bowels  ?  47.  How  do  the  bowels  connect  with  the  stomach  ? 
48.  What  kinds  of  food  are  still  undigested  when  they  leave  the 
stomacli?  49,  What  is  the  jDylorus?  50.  Into  what  three  i^arts 
can  the  intestines  be  divided?  51.  What  is  the  name  given  to  each 
part?  52.  How  are  the  intestines  arranged  so  that  they  can  all  find 
room  in  the  abdomen  ?  53.  To  what  are  the  intestines  attached  ? 
54.  What  coats  have  the  intestines  ?  55.  What  can  you  say  about 
the  outside  shining  coat  of  the  intestines  ?  56.  What  is  the  peri- 
toneum, and  what  does  it  cover?  57.  Tell  about  the  lining  of  the 
intestines.  58.  What  is  the  w^ork  of  the  intestines?  59.  What 
kinds  of  food  are  digested  by  the  small  intestine  ?  60.  In  what  part 
of  the  small  intestine  does  most  of  the  work  take  place?  61.  What 
openings  are  there  into  the  first  part  of  the  small  intestine?  62. 
Where  is  the  liver  placed  ?  63.  What  are  the  three  uses  of  the 
liver?  64.  Where  is  the  gall-bladder?  65.  How  is  bile  made? 
66.  What  does  it  look  like?  67.  When  is  bile  needed  in  the  intes- 
tine ?  68.  How  does  the  bile  get  into  the  intestine  ?  69.  What 
can  you  say  of  the  uses  of  bile  ?  70.  What  is  jaundice  ?  71. 
How  does  the  liver  become  diseased?  72.  What  is  the  cause  of 
gout  ?  73.  What  effect  has  alcohol  upon  the  liver  ?  74.  Where  is 
the  pancreas?  75.  What  is  it  commonly  called  by  the  butcher? 
76.  What  fluid  is  produced  by  the  pancreas  ?  77.  What  are  the  uses 
of  the  pancreatic  juice  ?  78.  What  kinds  of  food  are  digested  by  the 
pancreatic  jaice?  79.  How  does  the  blood  take  up  the  nourishing 
parts  of  the  food  which  have  become  digested  ?  80.  What  are  the 
lacteals,  what  do  they  do,  and  why  are  they  so-called?  81.  Are 
the  intestines  usually  quiet  or  in  motion  ?  82.  Why  is  it  necessary 
for  them  to  be  in  motion  ?  83,  Mention  some  of  the  habits  which 
are  injurious  to  digestion  ?  84.  Explain  why  eating  too  quickly  or 
too  much  at  a  time  is  injurious.  85.  How  should  ice-water  be 
taken  ?  86.  Why  should  we  not  exercise  directly  after  meals  ?  87. 
What  effect  has  excitement  of  any  kind  upon  digestion  ?  88.  Wliat 
effect  have  alcohol  and  alcoholic  drinks  upon  digestion  ?  89.  Where 
is  the  spleen?  90.  What  does  it  look  like?  91.  What  do  we  know 
about  its  use  ? 


DIGESTION. 


99 


Fig.  49. — The  Blood-vessels.     In  the  right  half  of  the  figure  the  arteries  are  shown  ;  iu 

the  left  half,  the  veins. 


CHAPTER  YII. 

THE  BLOOD  AND  THE  OIROULATION— THE  HEART  AND 
THE  BLOOD-VESSELS. 

199.  If  you  cut  your  finger  you  notice  a  red  fluid  escaping 
from  the  wound  which  you  call  blood.  If  the  cut  be  a  slight 
one,  only  a  little  blood  will  be  lost,  and  the  accident  will  not 
worry  you  much  ;  but  if  it  be  deeper,  you  may  have  trouble  in 
stopping  the  bleeding,  and  you  would  feel  alarmed,  for  every- 
one knows  how  important  the  blood  is.  It  is  called  life's  fluid, 
and  it  deserves  the  name  ;  for  if  one-quarter  of  the  blood  is 
lost,  life  would  be  in  danger  ;  and  if  one- third  were  lost,  certain 
death  would  result. 

200.  Appearance  of  Blood.— Blood  is  a  thin  fluid  of  a 
red  color.  If  we  look  at  the  blood  of  an  artery,  the  color  is  bright 
red  ;  but  in  the  veins  the  blood  is  of  a  dark  7'ed  color.  Why 
this  difference  exists  will  be  explained  later.  Although  it  has 
this  red  color,  the  fluid  part  of  the  blood  is  not  red,  but  yellow- 
ish. It  looks  red  because  there  are  a  great  many  small  red 
bodies  floating  in  it.     These  we  call  the  blood-globules. 

201.  Composition  of  the  Blood. — The  blood  is  composed 
of  a  yelloivish  fluid,  called  plasma,  in  which  we  find  millions 
of  small  bodies,  mostly  of  a  red  color,  which  we  call  the  blood- 
globules. 

202.  Blood-globules. — If  we  take  a  drop  of  blood  and 
look  at  it  under  the  microscope,  we  can  easily  see  these  blood- 
(dobulcs.  Even  in  a  small  drop  of  blood,  there  are  about  ten 
millions  of  them,  which  will  give  an  idea  of  the  great  number 
there  must  be  in  the  entire  body. 


THE   BLOOD    AND   THE    CIRCULATION. 


101 


203.  The  Microscope. — ^Tbis  instrument  has  often  been 
alluded  to  in  these  pages,  and  is  constantly 
used  in  studying  the  finer  structure  of 
different  parts  of  the  body.  Probably 
everyone  knows  what  a  magnify ing-glass 
is,  and  has  seen  it  used  for  making  objects 
look  larger.  Perhaps,  too,  many  of  you 
have  brought  the  rays  of  the  sun  together 
into  a  small  spot  on  your  hand  and  found 
how  this  burns.  On  this  account,  the  mag- 
nifying-glass  is  often  called  a  burning- 
glass.  Such  a  magnifying-glass  makes 
objects  appear  five  or  six  times  as  large  as 
they  really  are.  If  several  very  strong 
magiiifying-glasses  were  placed  one  over 
another  in  a  metal  tube  (Fig.  50),  objects 
looked  at  through  all  of  them  would 
appear  a  hundred,  or  even  a  thousand 
times  larger  than  they  really  were,  and 
this  would  constitute  a  microscope. 

204.  Red  Blood-globules. — If  a  drop  of  blood  be  looked 
at  under  the  microscope,  the  yellow  fluid  is  seen  plainly,  and 
in  it  we  also  see  the  blood -globules  in  great  numbers.     Most 

of  these  globules  are  of  a  reddish  color, 
flat,  with  the  edge  a  little  thicker  than 
the  centre.  These  are  called  the  red 
blood-globules.  After  the  blood  leaves 
the  body,  these  red  blood-globules  are 
apt  to  stick  together  at  their  sides  (Fig. 
51),  and  in  this  way  columns  are  formed 
looking  like  rolls  of  coin  piled  one  upon 
another. 

205.  White  Blood-globules.— Be- 
sides the  red  blood-globules  there  are  others  which  are  white, 
and  somewhat  larger  than  the  red  (Fig.  51).     These  are  not  flat, 


Fig.  50. — The  Microscope. 


Fig.  51. — ^Hnman  Red  and 
White  Blood-globulep.  The  red 
globules  are  seen  to  be  flattened 
and  in  rolls  ;  the  white  ones  are 
alone,  dotted,  and  larger. 


102 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 


but  j^erfectly  round,  like  a  sphere,  and  have  two  or  three  spots 
iu  their  centre.  There  are  very  few  of  these  white  bodies, 
which  we  call  lulilte  blood-globules,  compared  to  the  large  number 
of  the  red  ones.  We  call  both  the  red  and  the  white  ones  glob- 
ules, because  of  their  shape,  the  word  globule  meaning  a  little 
sphere. 

20G.  The  Plasma. — The  water}',  fluid  portion  of  the  blood 
in  whicli  the  red  and  the  white  blood-globules  float  is  called 
the  blood -plasma. 

207.  Blood  of  Other  Animals. — In  other  animals,  as  in 
man,  the  blood  is  red  and  is  formed  of  plasma,  red  blood -glob- 
ules, and  white  blood-globules. 
There  is,  however,  one  difference 
in  some  animals.  In  man  the  red 
blood-globules  are  flattened,  cir- 
cular, and  perfectly  clear,  having 
no  spots  in  the  centre. 

In  many  of  the  larger  animals, 
and  in  all  of  our  domestic  animals, 
the  red  blood-globules  have  this 
same  shape.  But  in  the  blood  of 
birds,  fishes,  and  certain  other  ani- 
mals like  snakes  and  alligators, 
which  we  call  reptiles,  the  red  blood-globules,  while  still  of  the 
same  color  as  in  man,  are  oval  in  shape,  and  have  a  spot  in 
the  centre  (Fig.  52). 

208.  Use  of  the  Red  Blood-globules.— The  red  blood- 
globules  have  a  very  important  use,  to  explain  which  it  will  be 
necessary  to  say  something  about  the  air  we  breathe.  The  air 
is  made  up  principally  of  two  gases  :  One-fifth  is  a  rich  gas 
called  oxijfjen.  It  is  the  gas  whicli  is  necessary  for  life.  The 
rest  is  a  gas  called  nitrogen,  which  serves  to  dilute  the  oxygen 
so  that  it  may  not  be  too  rich,  but  just  right  for  breathing. 
When  we  inhale  air  it  passes  into  our  lungs  and  stays  there  a 
short  time,  and  while  there  the  blood  takes  some  of  the  oxygen 


Fig.  52.— The  Red  Blood-globules  in 
Birds,  Fishe.s,  and  Reptiles  (on  left  of 
figure)  as  Compared  with  Those  of  Man 
(i-ight  half  of  figure). 


THE   BLOOD   AND   THE   CIKCULATION.  103 

from  the  air.  In  the  lungs  there  are  a  great  many  small  blood- 
vessels. The  oxygen  passes  through  the  thin  walls  of  these 
and  the  blood  flowing  along  takes  it  up.  The  watery  part  of 
the  blood  cannot  take  up  the  oxygen  ;  the  red  blood-globules 
do  this.  At  the  same  time  the  color  of  the  blood,  which  was 
dark  red  before  the  oxygen  was  taken  up,  changes  to  a  bright 
red.  After  the  red  blood-globules  have  taken  up  this  valuable 
gas,  they  carry  it  to  different  parts  of  the  body  and  give  it  to 
the  tissues  which  have  become  used  up,  so  that  they  become 
built  up  again. 

209.  Use  of  the  Plasma. — The  fluid  part  of  the  blood  also 
has  a  special  use.  When  the  different  tissues  of  the  body  are 
being  used  up,  they  give  off  a  poisonous  gas  which  is  called 
carbonic  acid  gas.  This  gas  is  quite  heavy  and  often  collects  at 
the  bottom  of  wells  or  in  cellars  that  have  been  dark  and  shut 
up  for  a  long  time.  You  sometimes  read  of  people  losing  their 
lives  by  going  down  into  such  wells  and  cellars,  for  this  gas  is 
so  poisonous  that  the  people  cannot  breathe  it  and  they  choke 
to  death.  In  such  cases,  if  it  is  susj^ected  that  this  gas  may  be 
collected  there,  a  lighted  candle  should  first  be  lowered  into 
them  ;  if  it  Avill  not  burn,  it  would  be  dangerous  there  for  a 
human  being.  For  where  this  carbonic  acid  gas  is  present,  the 
oxygen  is  absent  or  very  little  is  present,  and  the  candle  re- 
quires oxygen  to  burn  just  as  we  do  to  breathe  and  live.  After 
the  plasma  has  taken  up  this  poisonous  carbonic  acid  gas,  it 
carries  it  to  the  lungs  where  it  passes  through  the  walls  of  the 
blood-vessels  and  escapes  into  the  air.  This  is  the  reason  why 
the  air  which  we  breathe  out  is  not  so  pure  as  that  which  we 
breathe  in. 

210.  Difference  between  the  Blood  in  Arteries  and 
the  Blood  in  Veins. — The  blood  flowing  in  the  arteries  is  of 
a  bright  red  color,  because  it  has  just  received  a  supply  of  oxy- 
gen from  the  air  in  the  lungs,  and  has  given  up  its  poisonous 
gas  to  the  air.  The  blood  in  the  veins  is  of  a  dark  red  color 
because  the  tissues  have  robbed  it  of  the  oxygen  which  it  had 


104  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 

before,  and  have  given  it  a  large  supply  of  the  poisonous  car- 
bonic acid  gas.  The  blood  in  veins  is  warmer  than  that  of 
arteries. 

211.  Clotting  of  the  Blood.— While  the  blood  is  in  the 
body  and  in  the  vessels  through  which  it  usually  moves,  it  is 
fluid.  But  if  taken  from  the  body,  and  placed  in  the  air,  it 
very  soon  becomes  thicker  and  thicker,  and  finally  is  a  soft 
solid,  about  as  thick  as  jelly.  If  in  a  cup,  it  may  then  be  turned 
out,  and  like  jelly,  it  will  retain  the  shape  of  the  cup.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  thick  part,  a  quantity  of  yellow  fluid  will  also  be 
found  to  have  separated.  Blood  never  becomes  hard,  even 
when  it  solidifies  ;  it  becomes  a  soft  jelly-like  solid.  This 
change  of  the  blood  from  the  fluid  to  the  solid  state  after  it  is 
removed  from  the  blood-vessels  is  called  clotting.  The  thick- 
ened blood  we  call  a  clot,  while  the  yellow  fluid  which  sej^arates 
is  called  the  serum.  It  is,  of  course,  not  natural  for  blood  to 
clot ;  this  happens  only  when  the  blood  is  exposed  to  the  air,  or 
when  there  has  been  some  change  in  the  blood-vessel.  It  is 
quite  difficult  to  understand  why  this  thickening  occurs,  but 
if  we  examine  the  blood  under  the  microscope  after  it  has 
clotted  we  see  that  a  large  number  of  very  fine  hair-like  bodies 
called  fibres  have  appeared,  and  that  these  run  in  every  di- 
rection and  across  one  another,  and  that  the  blood-globules 
have  been  caught  and  entangled  among  them  ;  and  this  makes 
the  blood  thicken. 

212.  Value  of  the  Clotting  of  Blood.— This  thickening 
or  clotting  of  blood  is  of  the  greatest  importance.  If  it  were 
not  for  this  we  should  bleed  to  death,  every  time  we  cut  our- 
selves. For  when  a  wound  is  made,  the  blood  flows  until  a 
crust  forms,  and  this  crust  stops  the  bleeding.  This  ci'ust  is 
the  same  thickening,  or  clotting,  of  which  we  have  been  speak- 
ing, and  there  would  be  no  way  to  stop  bleeding  permanently  if 
it  were  not  for  this.  You  might  press  your  finger  on  the  wound 
and  stop  the  bleeding  in  this  way,  but  as  soon  as  you  took  your 
finger  off  the  blood  would  flow  again. 


THE   BLOOD    AND   THE    CIRCULATION. 


105 


213.  The  Circulation. — Thus  far  we  have  been  speaking 
of  the  blood  itself.  Now  we  will  study  how  the  blood  flows 
through  the  body,  for  our  hlood  is  constantly  moving.  This 
we  can  see  very  w^ell  in  the  frog.  If  we  take  some  part  of  the 
frog,  as  for  instance,  one  of  the  thin  parts  of  the  foot,  and 
spread  it  out  and  look  at  it  under  the  microscope,  we  shall 
see  the  blood  in  motion.  The  only  reason  we  cannot  see  it  in 
man  is  that  there  is  no  part  thin  enough  and  transparent 
enough  for  us  to  see  through.  If  we  examine  the  thin  part 
of  the  frog's  foot  in  this  way  we  shall  see  a  number  of  tubes, 


Fig.  53. — The  Blood  in  Motion,  as  Seen  in  the  Small  Blood-vessels  of  the  Frog's  Foot. 


and  in  the  centre  a  fluid  full  of  small  bodies — some  red,  some 
white — these  are  the  blood-globules.  It  will  be  seen  that 
there  are  a  great  many  red  ones  and  only  a  few  white  ones. 
And  you  can  also  notice  that  the  red  ones  hurry  along,  a  great 
many  in  company,  in  the  centre  of  the  stream,  while  the  few 
white  ones  seem  to  rub  against  the  wall  of  the  blood-vessel, 
and  go  along  quite  slowly.  It  is  a  beautiful  sight  and  is  an- 
other illustration  of  how  wonderfully  we  are  constructed.     In 


106  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 

studying  the  manner  in  which  blood  flows  through  our  bodies 
it  will  be  necessary'  to  commence  with  a  description  of  the 
heart,  the  arteries,  the  veins,  and  the  capillaries. 

THE  HEART. 

214.  Situation    of  the    Heart.— The  heart  is   the   most 
important  organ  in  the  body.     It  is  placed  in  the  chest,  be- 


FiG.  5-4.  —The  Heart  in  Its  Natnial  I'osition.  It  is  smroniidod  by  its  sac,  the  peiicardinin ; 
on  each  side  the  hinss  are  seen  ;  above,  tlie  large  vessels  are  seen  springing  from  it.  In 
order  to  see  all  this  the  front  of  the  chest  is  represented  as  having  been  removed. 


tween  the  lungs,  and  is  covered  in  front  by  the  breast-bone 
(Fig.  54).    It  projects  beyond  the  breast-bone  on  each  side,  but 


THE  BLOOD   AND   THE   CIKCULATIOX. 


107 


more  to  the  left  than  to  the  right.  If  the  hand  be  placed  upon 
the  front  of  the  chest  on  the  left  side  the  heat  of  the  heart  can 
be  felt.  This  corresponds  to  the  position  of  the  2:)ointed  end  of 
the  heart.  If  the  ear  be  placed  over  this  spot  the  sound  made 
by  the  beating  of  the  heart  can  be  heard. 

215.  Form  of  the  Heart.— The  heart  is  shaped  like  a  cone, 
with  the  wide  part  above  and  the  point  below.  It  measures 
five  inches  from  one  end  to  the  other.  It  is  holluiv  (Figs.  56 
and  57),  and  its  walls  are  formed  of  muscle-tissue. 

21G.  The  Pe r icard  i u m . — The  heart  is  surrounded  by  a  sac, 
called  the  pericardium,  mean- 
ing around  the  heart.  Between 
this  sac  and  the  heart  is  a 
space  in  which  a  little  fluid  is 
found. 

217.  Cavities  of  the 
Heart, — The  heart  is  hollow, 
so  as  to  have  spaces  through 
which  the  blood  can  flow.  It 
has  four  such  spaces.  If  we 
look  at  the  heart  from  the  out- 
side, we  can  first  divide  it  into 
two  halves,  a  left  and  a  rigid. 
The  right  and  the  left  sides  of 
the  heart  are  separated  by  a 
groove  which  runs  from  the 
wide  part  of  the  heart  above 
to  the  point  below.  Then 
there  is  a  horizontal  groove, 
which  runs  across  this  vertical 
one  and  divides  each  side  into 
two  smaller  parts,  an  upjjer 
and  a  lower.  If  we  examine 
the  interior  of  the  heart  we  find  four  spaces.  The  partitions 
which  separate  these  spaces  are  j^laced  within,  exactly  where 


Fig.  55. — The  Heart  and  the  Ziarge  Vessels 
Given  off  from  it. 


108 


AKATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 


Fig.  56.— Outline 
Sketch  Showing  the 
Arrangement  of  the 
Cavities  of  the  Heart. 
A,  Right  Auricle ;  B, 
Left  Auricle;  C,  Right 
Ventricle  ;  D,  Left 
Ventricle. 


the  grooves  are  fouud  on  the  outside.  So  that  each  side  of  the 
heart  has  two  spaces,  an  upper  and  a  lower  (Figs.  56  and  57). 
The  upper  spaces  are  called  auricles,  and  the 
lower  ve)dricles.  Consequently,  there  is  a 
right  auricle  and  a  left  auricle,  and  a  right 
ventricle  and  a  left  ventricle.  The  ventricles 
are  much  larger  than  the  auricles.  The  wall 
of  the  heart  is  much  thicker  on  the  left  side 
than  it  is  on  the  right. 

218.  Function  of  the  Heart. — The  heart 
serves  to  pump  the  blood  into  the  blood-ves- 
sels with  such  force  that  it  flows  all  through 
the  body.  The  walls  of  the  heart  are  made  of 
muscle,  and  this  muscle  is  constantly  contract- 
ing, and  each  time  it  contracts  we  say  it  heats. 
When  it  does  this  the  whole  heart  becomes 
smaller,  and  its  cavities  become  smaller,  and  thus  the  blood  is 
forced  out.  After  this  the  heart  expands  again,  its  auricles  and 
ventricles  become  wider,  and  the  blood  flows  into  them  from 
the  veins  until  the  heart  becomes  filled.  These  actions  of  the 
heart  are  being  continually  repeated. 

219.  Frequency  of  the  Heart-beats.— In  the  grown  per- 
son, the  heart  beats  about  seventy  times  a  minute.  In  the 
child,  it  beats  eighty  or  more.  In  the  old  person  it  may  only 
beat  sixty  a  minute.  When  sick  with  fever,  the  heart  works 
more  rapidly  than  in  health,  and  then  often  beats  over  a  hun- 
dred a  minute. 

220.  Course  of  the  Blood.— "Wlien  the  blood  leaves  the 
heart  it  passes  from  the  right  side  of  the  heart  to  the  lungs, 
thence  it  returns  to  the  left  side  of  the  heart,  thence  it  passes 
into  the  arteries  all  through  the  body,  and  thence  it  returns 
through  the  veins  to  the  right  side  of  the  heart  (Fig.  58).  The 
way  in  which  the  blood  circulates  and  its  course  were  discov- 
ered in  1618,  by  an  Englishman,  named  Harvey.  It  was  a  won- 
derful discovery.     Before   Harvey's  time  nothing  was   known 


THE   BLOOD  AND  THE  CIRCULATION.  109 

about  the  way  in  which  the  blood  flows.     The  ancients  imagined 
that  the  arteries  contain  air. 


Fig.  57.— The  Heart  (the  Front  has  Been  Removed),  Showing  the  Interior. 

221.  The   Circulation    through   the    Lungs. — All  the 

blood  passes  from  the  veins  into  the  right  side  of  the  heart, 
first  into  the  upper  space  (auricle),  and  thence  into  the  lower 
space  (ventricle).  When  these  two  become  full  of  blood  the 
heart  contracts  and  squeezes  out  the  blood  into  a  large  artery 
(the  pulmonary  artery),  which  carries  it  to  the  lungs.  Here 
the  blood  passes  into  smaller  and  smaller  arteries,  and,  finally, 


110 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 


into  the  very  finest  tubes,  which  we  call  the  capillaries  (from 
a  Latin  word  meaning  a  hair,  because  they  are  so  very 
small). 

222.  While  the  blood  flows  through  these  capillaries  of  the 
lung,  it  meets  the  air  taken  in  when  we  inhale  :  and  from  this 


Fig.  58. — Diagram  Showing  the  Course  of  the  Blood  Through  the  Heart,  Lungs,  and  Body 

in  General. 


air  it  absorbs  the  oxygen,  and  gives  to  it  the  poisonous  carbonic 
acid  gas.  Thus  in  passing  through  the  lungs  the  blood  has 
gained  oxycjen  and  lod  the  poisonous  gas;  and  in  doing  this  it 
changes  from  the  dark  red  color  it  had  before  to  a  bright  red 
color ;  it  is  now  imrified.     The  capillaries  soon  join  to  form 


THE  BLOOD  AND  THE  CIRCULATION.       Ill 

larger  and  larger  tubes,  and  these  unite  to  form  several  large 
blood-vessels,  which  carry  the  purified  blood  back  to  the  heart. 
But  this  time  it  passes  to  the  left  side  of  the  heart,  first  through 
the  left  auricle  and  then  through  the  left  ventricle.  When 
enough  blood  has  flowed  into  the  heart,  it  contracts  and 
squeezes  it  out  into  a  very  large  blood-vessel  (the  aorta),  which 
carries  it  to  the  tissues  in  the  different  parts  of  the  body. 
223    All  this  is  shown  very  well  in  diagram  in  Fig.   58. 


Pig.  59.— The  Valves  of  the  Heart,  and  Between  the  Heart  and  the  Large  Vessels  which 

Leave  It. 


Starting  above,  we  see  the  heart ;  the  shaded  part  to  the  left 
representing  the  right  side.  The  impure  blood  passes  hence 
to  the  lungs,  gradually  becoming  purified  and  brighter  as 
it  passes  through  this  organ.  From  the  lungs  it  is  seen 
to  pass  in  its  bright  color  to  the  left  side  of  the  heart 
(which  is  the  portion  of  the  heart  unshaded  on  the  diagram). 
Hence  it  passes  along,  as  the  arrow  indicates,  to  the  different 
parts  of  the  body,  called  on  the  diagram  the  system.  Pass- 
ing through  the  system  and  through  the  abdominal  organs. 


112  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 

as  shown  in  the  diagram,  the  blood  gradually  becomes  darker, 
and  is  shown  to  be  carried  by  the  large  veins  back  again  into 
the  right  side  of  the  heart,  the  point  at  which  we  began  to 
trace  it. 

224.  Valves  of  the  Heart. — The  valves  of  the  heart  resem- 
ble lids  which  are  placed  between  the  different  spaces  in  the 
heart.  They  allow  the  blood  to  flow  one  way,  but  when  it  at- 
tempts to  return  in  the  opposite  direction,  they  close  up  and 
prevent  it.  Fig.  59  shows  them  closed,  thus  shutting  off  and 
separating  the  different  cavities  of  the  heart.  There  are  also 
similar  valves  placed  between  the  heart  and  the  large  vessels 
which  leave  it.  It  Avill  readily  be  seen  how  imj)ortant  it  is  that 
such  a  valve  should  exist  between  the  left  ventricle  and  the 
large  artery  which  distributes  the  blood  to  the  different  parts 
of  the  body,  the  aorta;  this  valve  prevents  the  blood  from  flow- 
ing back  into  the  heart  after  it  has  been  forced  into  the  aorta. 


THE    BLOOD-VESSELS. 

225.  Those  blood-vessels  which  take  the  purified  blood  from 
the  heart  and  distribute  it  to  all  parts  of  the  body  are  called 
arteries.  The  blood-vessels  which  return  the  used-up  blood 
from  the  tissues  to  the  heart  are  called  veins.  Between  the 
smallest  arteries  and  the  smallest  veins  are  the  very  finest 
blood-vessels,  which  are  called  capillaries.  So  that  the  blood, 
after  being  purified,  passes  through  arteries,  then  capillaries, 
then  veins. 

226.  The  Arteries. — The  large  artery  which  leaves  the  left 
side  of  the  heart,  the  aorta,  soon  divides  and  subdivides,  and 
these  branches  pass  in  many  different  directions,  constantly  giv- 
ing off  other  and  smaller  branches.  A  tree  forms  a  very  good 
example  of  how  the  arteries  run  in  the  body  ;  the  large  trunk 
of  the  tree  corresponds  to  the  large  artery  which  leaves  the 
heart,  and  the  branches  correspond  to  the  branches  of  these 
arteries. 


THE   BLOOD    AND   THE   CIRCULATION.  113 

227.  The  Pulse. — When  you  are  sick,  and  the  doctor  is 
called,  one  of  the  first  things  he  does  is  to  feel  your  pulse.  He 
will  put  his  finger  upon  your  wrist  and  he  will  take  out  his 
watch.  Why  does  he  do  this?  He  is  counting  your  pulse. 
If  you  put  your  finger  upon  your  own  wrist,  in  front,  on  the 
side  on  which  the  thumb  is,  you  will  feel  something  beat- 
ing. This  is  an  artery,  and  the  beating  you  feel  is  your 
pulse.  Every  time  the  heart  beats  the  arteries  beat,  and  this 
gives  what  is  called  the  pulse.  This  will  be  understood  if  it 
be  remembered  that-every  time  the  heart  contracts  it  pumps 
blood  into  the  arteries,  and  every  time  another  heartful  of  blood 
is  forced  into  the  arteries,  being  elastic,  they  expand  and  grow 
wider.  It  is  this  expansion  which  is  felt  with  your  finger,  and 
which  is  called  the  pulse.  When  the  doctor  counts  the  pulse, 
he  can  tell  how  slowly  or  how  rapidly  the  heart  is  beating  ;  for 
the  pulse  is  the  same  in  number  as  the  heart-beats.  The  rea- 
son we  usually  take  the  pulse  at  the  wrist  is  because  it  is  most 
convenient ;  but  there  is  a  pulse  in  every  artery  of  any  size  in 
the  whole  body.  You  can  feel  one  at  your  temples,  one  at  the 
side  of  your  neck,  and  in  many  other  places. 

228.  The  Capillaries. — These  are  the  very  smallest  blood- 
vessels, and  they  connect  the  arteries  with  the  veins.  We  find 
the  capillaries  almost  everywhere.  They  are  so  small  that  we 
cannot  see  them  without  the  use  of  the  microscope.  If  you 
scratch  yourself  and  a  little  blood  comes,  this  is  from  some  of 
the  capillaries,  not  from  an  artery  or  vein  ;  for  if  an  artery  or 
vein  is  injured  it  is  more  serious.  It  is  while  the  blood  is  pass- 
ing through  the  capillaries  from  the  arteries  to  the  veins,  that 
the  tissues  take  from  it  the  oxygen  and  give  up  to  it  the  poi- 
sonous carbonic  acid  gas.  And  after  this  change  has  taken 
place,  the  color  of  the  blood  has  changed  from  the  bright  red 
of  the  purified  blood  in  the  arteries  to  the  dark  red  of  the  im- 
pure blood  in  the  veins. 

229.  The  Veins. — After  the  blood  has  passed  through  the 
different  tissues  by  means  of  the  capillaries  these  unite  to  form 


114 


ANATpMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   ITYGIEXE. 


the  smallest  veins,  and  many  of  these  join  to  form  larger  ones, 
until  finally  we  have  a  single  large  vein,  just  as  we  had  a  sin- 
gle large  artery-.  But  there  is  this  difference  :  The  artery 
started  from  the  heart  and  went  to  the  tissues ;  the  veins 
start  in  the  tissues  and  gradually  join  into  a  large  one  which 
goes  to  the  heart.  The  arteries,  too,  contained  bright-red, 
pure  blood ;  the  veins  are  filled  with  dark-red  or  purple,  im- 
pure blood. 

230.  Valves  of  the  Veins. — There  is  still  another  differ- 
ence between  veins  and  arteries  :  Veins  have  valves   (Fig.  60). 

In  the  arteries  the  blood  has  no 
difficulty  in  going  anywhere, 
even  up-hill,  because  the  heart 
pumps  it  along  with  consider- 
able force.  But  there  is  nothing 
of  this  sort  behind  the  blood  in 
the  veins,  for  after  the  blood  has 
travelled  through  the  capillaries 
it  has  lost  most  of  the  force 
given  it  by  the  heart.  It  would 
therefore  be  impossible  for  the 
blood  to  flow  up  hill  in  the  veins, 
as,  for  instance,  in  the  legs,  if 
there  were  not  some  arrange- 
ment for  this  purpose.  This 
arrangement  consists  in  having 
valves  (Fig.  60)  which  allow  the 

blood  to  flow  toward  the  heart,  but  close  up,  and  thus  prevent 

it  from  going  in  the  opposite  direction. 

231.  Rapidity  of  the  Circulation  of  the  Blood.— The 
blood  flows  through  its  vessels  very  quickly,  and  it  takes  about 
half  a  minute  for  it  to  pass  from  the  heart  through  the  lungs, 
all  through  the  body  and  back  again  to  the  heart.  How  many 
blood-vessels  must  it  pass  through  in  this  short  time  ! 

232.  Fainting.     When  a  person  becomes  pale  and  would 


Fig.  60.— a  Pair  of  Valves  in  One  of  the 
Veins.  They  are  open;  the  direction  of  the 
flow  of  blood  is  indicated  by  the  arrow. 


THE   BLOOD   AND   THE   CIRCULATION". 


115 


fall  if  be  did  not  hold  on  to  something,  we  say  he  has  fainted. 
This  often  happens  after  he  has  been  sick  and  tries  to  walk 
before  he  is  strong  enough.  The  proper  thing  to  do  for  such  a 
person  is  to  lay  him  down  perfectly  flat.  There  should  be  no 
pillow  underneath  the  head.  If  possible,  the  head  should  be 
even  lower  than  the  rest  of  the  body  so  that  the  blood  may  run 
into  the  head  and  fill  the  blood-vessels  of  the  brain  ;  for  the 
usual  reason  for  the  fainting  is  that  the  heart  becomes  weak  and 


Fig.  61.— Method  of  Controlling  Bleeding  from  a  Large  Wound. 


has  not  sufficient  force  to  send  enough  blood  to  the  brain.  It 
is  also  important  that  no  crowd  should  gather  around  the  person, 
so  that  he  can  get  all  the  air  possible.  The  extremities  should 
be  stroked  or  rubbed  toward  the  trunk,  so  as  to  facilitate  the 
flow  of  blood. 

233.  Bleeding. — If  we  hurt  ourselves  in  any  way  and  the 
bleeding  is  slight,  it  will  usually  stop  of  itself  or  after  we  ap- 
ply a  little  court-plaster.  But  suppose  we  receive  a  deep  cut 
and  the  blood  flows  freely  and  we  cannot  stop  it,  what  shall 


116  AI^ATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 

we  do  until  the  doctor  arrives  ?  We  should  press  upon  the  in- 
jured -ptivt  just  above  the  cut,  or  tie  a  string  around  it  instead 
of  pressing  with  the  finger.  For  instance,  if  it  is  the  tip  of  the 
finger  which  is  bleeding  very  much,  we  can  tie  a  string  around 
the  finger  an  inch  or  so  above  the  cut  and  this  will  stop  the 
bleeding.  If  it  is  a  larger  part,  as  the  arm  or  the  forearm, 
tie  a  handkerchief  around  the  limb  above  the  injury  and 
tighten  this  by  means  of  a  stick  put  under  the  handkerchief, 
and  twist  until  it  is  very  tight  (Fig.  61).  Another  name  for 
bleeding  is  hemorr'hage. 

234.  How  to  have  a  Good  Circulation. — If  we  wish  to 
be  in  good  health,  the  circulation  must  be  good  and  brisk.  If 
the  circulation  be  sluggish,  we  are  apt  to  sulier  in  all  parts  of 
the  body,  because  no  part  gets  as  much  blood  as  it  should.  With 
a  poor  circulation  the  feet  are  apt  to  be  cold  in  winter,  the  per- 
son catches  cold  easily,  he  is  quickly  chilled,  he  may  have  head- 
ache, and  he  is  not  in  the  best  of  health.  If  we  want  good 
health,  our  circulation  must  be  good. 

235.  Exercise  is  ,the  great  medicine  for  a  good  circulation. 
Any  good  form  of  exercise  will  answer  and  exercise  in  the  open 
air  is  the  best,  because  while  we  are  making  our  blood  go 
faster  we  are  also  getting  more  oxygen  to  the  tissues  and  build- 
ing them  up  more  quickly.  Too  much  exercise,  making  one 
very  tired,  or  too  severe  exercise,  such  as  lifting  too  heav^^ 
weights,  is  injurious,  because  it  tires  out  the  heart  and  makes 
it  weak.  And  if  the  exercise  be  much  too  severe  there  is  even 
danger  of  bursting  a  small  blood-vessel,  though  this  does  not 
happen  often. 

236.  Effects  of  Alcohol  upon  the  Heart  and  the  Cir- 
culation.— Alcoholic  drink  passes  into  the  blood  and  irritates 
the  heart,  and  as  a  result  the  heart  may  become  too  large.  It 
might  be  thought  that  there  would  be  no  objection  to  having 
the  heart  too  large,  but  this  is  not  so.  For  when  the  heart  is 
not  of  the  right  size  it  does  not  act  properly  and  sickness  re- 
sults.    The  heart  of  a  drunkard  often  contains  a  larcfe  amount 


THE  BLOOD   AND  THE  CIRCULATION.  117 

of  fat,  which  loeakens  it  and  it  then  has  not  power  enough  to  force 
the  blood  into  the  arteries  properly,  and  the  different  parts  of 
the  body  receive  too  little  blood  and  become  pale  and  thin. 

237.  You  may  have  noticed  the  flushed  face  which  some  peo- 
ple have  after  drinking.  This  is  because  the  alcohol  drives  the 
blood  into  the  blood-vessels  of  the  skin  and  this  becomes  warm  ; 
but  it  takes  blood  from  other  parts  which  are  more  important, 
and  these  suffer. 

238.  The  arteries  of  the  confirmed  drunkard  may  become  so 
changed  as  to  be  brittle.  When  this  change  takes  place  in  the 
arteries  of  the  brain  they  are  liable  to  rupture.  This  is  called 
apoplexy  and  it  often  causes  the  person  to  fall  down  dead.  Of 
course  apoplexy  may  occur  in  persons  who  are  not  drunkards, 
but  it  does  occur  often  in  drunkards. 

239.  Effects  of  Tobacco  upon  the  Heart  and  the  Cir- 
culation.— The  use  of  tobacco  very  often  affects  the  heart  and 
causes  it  to  throb  so  that  the  person  feels  it  and  is  very  much 
annoyed  by  it.  This  is  called  palpitation  of  the  heart.  It  often 
causes  the  heart  to  beat  too  quickly  and  then  too  slowly  ;  some- 
times too  strongly  and  then  too  weakly.  All  these  effects  are 
so  common  that  such  an  irregular  heart  due  to  tobacco  is  recog- 
nized by  doctors  as  tobacco  heart.  Of  course,  the  circulation 
cannot  be  carried  on  properly  if  the  heart  acts  so  irregularly. 

THE  LYMPHATICS. 

240.  Besides  the  blood-vessels  there  are  other  small  tubes, 
in  which  there  flows  a  colorless  fluid,  looking  like  water,  which 
is  called  lymph,  and  these  tubes  are  therefore  called  lymphatics. 
They  are  shown  in  Fig.  62.  They  differ  from  the  blood-vessels 
in  not  containing  blood  ;  another  difi^rence  is  that  all  the  lym- 
phatics run  toward  the  heart. 

241.  The  lymphatics  begin  by  the  very  smallest  tubes,  as 
small  or  smaller  than  the  very  finest  capillaries.  They  then 
join  together  and  form  larger  vessels,  and  finally  they  form  two 


118  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 

large  tubes  which  open  into  the  large  veins  in  the  neck  (Fig. 
62). 

242.  The  lymphatics  help  the  veins  in  returning  the  used-up 
fluids  of  the  tissues  to  the  heart.     AVe  have  already  learnt  that 


Ftg.  G2.— The  Lymphatics  and  Lactcals. 


fresh,  bright  blood  is  brought  to  the  tissues  by  the  arteries, 
and  that  it  circulates  through  the  capillaries  of  the  tissues. 
After  the  tissues  have  removed  the  nutritious  portions,  the 
used-up  fluid  is  returned  to  the  heart,  partly  by  the  veins  and 
partly  by  the  lymphatics. 

243.  In  studying  digestion  we  found  that  there  are  certain 


THE  BLOOD   ANB  THE   CIRCULATIOiSr.  119 

vessels  in  the  abdomen  which  collect  the  nutritious  juices  from 
the  stomach  and  intestines  and  convey  them  to  the  blood. 
These  are  called  lacteals,  and  they  are  merely  a  j^art  of  the 
lymphatics. 

SYNOPSIS. 
The  Blood  : 

1.  Importance — '  Life's  fluid  ; '  death  when  one-third  is  lost. 

2.  Appearance — Thin,  watery  fluid  ;  red  color,  bright  or  dark. 

3.  Composition : 

(1.)  Globules: 

a.  Ked — Flat,  edge  thicker  than  centre,  circular  in 
'                    man  and  many  animals;  oval  and  spot  in  centre  in 

birds,  reptiles,  and  fishes ;  serve  to  carry  the  oxygen 
to  the  tissues ;  very  numerous. 

b.  White — Larger,  dotted  ;  much  less  numerous. 
(2).  Plasma — The  fluid  of  the  blood  serves  to  carry  the 

poisonous  carbonic  acid  gas  from  the  tissues  to  the  lungs. 

4.  Difference  in  Arteries  and  Veins  : 

(1.)  In  arteries — Bright  red ;  contains  more  oxygen  and 
less  carbonic  acid  gas  ;  cooler  ;  purer. 

(2.)  In  veins — Dark  red  ;  contains  less  oxygen  and  more 
carbonic  acid  gas  ;  warmer  ;  more  impure. 

5.  Clotting  : 

(1.)  Occurrence — When  removed  from  or  change  in  the 
blood-vessels. 

(2.)  Products — Clot  and  serum. 
(3.)  Value — Serves  to  stop  bleeding. 
The  Heart  : 

1.  Situation — Between  the  lungs,  behind  the  breast-bone. 

2.  Form — Cone-shaped,  pointed  end  downward  ;  hollow. 

3.  Covering — Sac  called  the  pericardium. 

4.  Structure — Muscle-tissue  ;  a  horizontal  and  a  vertical 
groove  divides  it  into  two  upper  and  two  lower  portions,  a  left 
and  a  right  half. 

5.  Cavities — Four:  right  auricle,  right  ventricle,  left  auricle, 
left  ventricle. 

6.  Function — To  pump  the  blood  into  the  lungs  and  all  parts 
of  the  body  through  the  arteries. 


120  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY,   AND   HYGIENE. 

7.  Frequency  of  Beats — In  adults,  about  seventy  times  per 
minute ;  in  children,  more  ;  in  the  aged,  less ;  in  fevers,  more. 

8.  Valves — To  separate  the  different  cavities,  when  necessary, 
and  to  prevent  the  return  of  blood  pumj^ed  into  the  aorta. 

The  Circulation — discovered  by  Harvey  in  1618  : 

1.  From  right  auricle  to 

2.  Right  ventricle,  then  through  pulmonary  artery  to 

3.  Lungs  ;  here  the  blood  meets  the  air  and  is  purified,  tak- 
ing up  oxygen  and  losing  the  poisonous  carbonic  acid  gas. 
From  the  lungs  it  returns  to 

4.  Left  auricle,  then  to 

5.  Left  ventricle  ;  then  it  is  forced  into 

6.  The  aorta,  and  then  through  the  branches  of  this  into 

7.  The  arteries,  carrying  it  to  different  parts  of  the  bbdy ; 
from  these  it  passes  into 

8.  The  capillaries,  which  join  to  form 

9.  Veins,  and  these  gradually  grow  larger,  and  finally  empty 
into  a  very  large  one  which  enters  the  right  auricle  of  the 
heart. 

10.  Eapidity — It  takes  about  half  a  minute  for  the  blood  to 
pass  from  the  heart  through  the  lungs  and  the  system  back  to 
the  heart  again. 

The  Arteries  : 

1.  Function — To  carry  pure,  bright  blood  to  the  tissues. 

2.  Origin — From  the  aorta,  which  springs  from  the  heart. 

3.  Branches — Constantly  become  smaller. 

4.  Pulse — Owing  to  the  contraction  of  the  heart. 

5.  Direction  of  Flow — From  the  heart  to  the  tissues. 
The  Veins  : 

1.  Function — To  carry  impure,  dark  blood  from  the  tissues 
to  the  heart. 

2.  Origin  —From  the  capillaries,  smaller  ones  gradually  unit- 
ing to  form  larger  ones, 

3.  Branches — Gradually  becoming  larger. 

4.  No  pulse. 

5.  Direction  of  Flow — from  the  tissues  toward  the  heart. 

6.  Valves — To  aid  the  flow  of  the  blood  toward  the  heart. 
The  Capillaries  : 

1.  Connect  arteries  and  veins. 


THE   BLOOD   AND   THE   CIRCULATION.  121 

2.  Allow  the  tissues  to  al3stract  oxygen  and  nntritious  mat- 
ters and  to  add  carbonic  acid  gas  and  used-up  fluids. 

3.  Very  small,  can  only  be  seen  by  microscope. 
Accidents  to  and  Care  of  Circulation  : 

1.  Fainting — Due  to  scarcity  of  blood  in  brain  ;  lay  j^erson 
horizontal,  with  head  low ;  plenty  of  air ;  rub  extremities  toward 
the  trunk. 

2.  Bleeding  : 

a.  If  slight  will  stop  by  itself,  or  after  use  of  court- 
plaster. 

b.  If  severe,  press  upon  the  injured  jDart  just  above  the 
cut,  or  tie  something  around  it  here. 

3.  Good  Circulation  necessary  to  good  health. 

4.  Necessity  of  proper  exercise  to  keep  up  a  good  circulation. 

5.  Effects  of  Alcohol  upon  the  Heart  and  Circulation  : 

a.  Enlarges  heart. 

b.  Weakens  it. 

c.  Makes  heart  fatty.  . 

d.  Flushed  face. 

e.  Changes  arteries. 

/.  Apoplexy,  bursting  of  one  of  arteries  of  brain. 

6.  Effects  of  Tobacco  ujDon  the  Heart  and  Circulation  : 

a.  Causes  heart  to  beat  too  rapidly  or  too  slowly. 

b.  Causes  heart  to  beat  too  weakly  or  too  strongly. 

c.  Causes  heart  to  beat  irregularly. 
The  Lymphatics  : 

1.  Description — Small  tubes  containing  a  colorless  fluid  called 
''  lymph." 

2.  Differ  from  blood-vessels  in  not  containing  blood,  and  in 
that  they  all  run  toward  the  heart. 

3.  Begin  by  very  smallest  tubes,  which  by  joining  together 
form  larger  ones. 

4.  End  by  two  large  tubes,  which  empty  into  the  large  veins 
of  the  neck. 

5.  Function,  to  help  the  veins  in  returning  the  used-up  fluids 
of  the  tissues  to  the  heart,  and  also  to  convey  nutritious  fluids 
from  the  intestines  to  the  blood-vessels  by  means  of  the 

6.  Lacteals — A  j)art  of  the  lymphatics. 


122  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 


QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  is  meant  by  the  words  *  life's  fluid  ?'  2.  What  happens 
if  the  body  loses  a  large  amount  of  blood  ?  3.  What  does  blood  look 
like  ?  4.  Why  does  blood  look  red  ?  5.  What  difference  is  there  in 
the  appearance  of  the  blood  in  arteries  and  of  that  in  veins  ?  6.  Of 
what  two  parts  is  blood  composed  ?  7.  Are  the  blood-globules  very 
abundant  ?  8.  What  is  a  microscope  ?  9.  What  is  it  used  for  ?  10. 
What  do  you  see  when  you  look  at  a  drop  of  blood  under  the  micro- 
scope ?  11.  Are  a'ly  of  the  blood-globules  white  ?  12.  What  is  the 
color  of  the  blood  of  other  animals  than  man  ?  13.  How  do  the 
red  blood-globules  in  birds  and  fishes  differ  from  those  of  human 
blood?  11.  What  is  the  use  of  the  red  blood-globules?  15.  Of 
what  gases  is  the  air  made  up  principally  ?  16.  Which  is  the  more 
useful  gas  ?  17.  What  happens  to  the  air  when  we  take  it  into  our 
lungs?  18.  What  part  of  the  blood  takes  oxygen  from  the  air?  19. 
What  do  the  red  blood-globules  do  with  this  oxygen  ?  20.  What  do 
the  tissues  do  with  it?  21.  Of  what  use  is  the  fluid  part  of  the 
blood?  22.  What  is  carbonic  acid  gas?  23.  Is  it  harmless  or  poi- 
sonous ?  24.  Where  is  it  sometimes  found  outside  of  the  body  ?  25. 
How  can  we  tell  that  no  jDoisonous  gas  exists  in  cellars  or  at  the  bot- 
tom of  old  wells  ?  26.  What  part  of  the  blood  takes  up  this  poison- 
ous gas  from  the  tissues  ?  27.  What  does  the  blood  do  with  this 
poisonous  gas?  28.  What  becomes  of  this  poisonous  gas  in  the 
lungs  ?  29.  What  is  the  difference  in  color,  heat,  and  purity  of  the 
blood  in  veins  and  of  that  in  arteries  ?  30.  What  happens  if  blood 
is  taken  from  the  blood-vessels  and  allowed  to  stand  in  the  air?  31. 
What  is  this  thickening  called  ?  32.  What  do  we  see  when  we  ex- 
amine clotted  blood  under  the  microscope  ?  33.  Of  what  use  is  this 
clotting  of  the  blood  ?  34.  What  would  happen  when  we  cut  our- 
selves if  the  blood  did  not  clot?  35.  What  is  the  best  way  of  seeing 
the  blood  in  motion  ?  36.  What  do  we  see  when  we  examine  the 
circulation  of  the  blood  through  the  thin  part  of  the  frog's  foot  ? 
37.  What  is  the  most  important  organ  in  the  body  ?  38.  What  is  the 
shape  of  the  heart  ?  39.  What  surrounds  the  heart  ?  40.  About  how 
long  is  the  heart  ?  41.  Of  what  kind  of  tissue  are  the  walls  of  the 
heart  formed?  42.  Where  is  the  heart  ?  43.  Where  can  you  feel  the 
heart  beat  ?    44.  If  you  put  your  ear  over  this  spot, what  do  you  hear  ? 


THE   BLOOD    AND   THE   CIRCULATION.  123 

45.  Is  the  heart  solid  or  hollow  ?  46.  How  many  spaces  are  there  in 
the  heart?  47.  How  is  the  heart  divided?  48.  How  are  the  sides 
of  the  heart  divided  ?  49.  Y7hat  are  the  upper  spaces  called  ?  50. 
What  are  the  lower  spaces  called  ?  51.  Which  are  the  larger  ?  52. 
What  is  the  use  of  the  heart  ?  53.  What  does  the  heart  do  when  it 
beats  ?  54.  How  often  does  the  heart  of  a  grown  man  beat  in  a  min- 
ute ?  55.  How  often  does  the  heart  of  a  child  beat  per  minute  ? 
56.  How  often  does  the  heart  of  an  old  man  beat  per  minute  ?  57. 
How  does  the  heart  beat  when  we  have  fever?  58.  Describe  the 
course  which  the  blood  takes.  59.  Where  does  the  blood  pass  to 
from  the  right  side  of  the  heart  ?  60.  Where  from  the  lungs  ?  61. 
Where  from  the  left  side  of  the  heart  ?  62.  Where  from  the  arteries? 
63.  How  is  the  blood  returned  to  the  heart  from  the  different  j^arts 
of  the  body  ?  64.  Wlio  discovered  the  circulation  of  the  blood  and 
when  ?  65.  How  does  the  blood  get  from  the  right  side  of  the  heart 
into  the  lungs  ?  66,  After  the  large  artery  carries  it  to  the  lung, 
where  does  it  pass  to?  67.  What  is  a  capillary?  68.  What  hap- 
pens to  the  blood  when  it  is  passing  through  the  capillaries  of  the 
lung  ?  69.  How  does  it  change  its  appearance  while  passing  through 
the  capillaries  of  the  lungs  ?  70.  Where  does  the  blood  pass  after 
it  has  been  purified  by  the  lungs  ?  71.  Where  does  the  purified 
blood  pass  to  after  it  reaches  the  heart  ?  72.  What  are  the  valves  of 
the  heart  ?  73.  What  is  their  use  ?  74.  What  three  kinds  of  blood- 
vessels are  there  ?  75.  What  is  an  artery  ?  76.  What  is  a  vein  ? 
77.  What  is  a  capillary?  78.  Do  arteries  branch?  79.  What  is 
meant  by  "  the  x)ulse  ?  "  80.  How  can  we  feel  the  pulse  ?  81.  How 
is  the  pulse  produced  ?  82.  Where  do  we  usually  take  the  j)ulse,  and 
why  ?  83.  What  sets  of  blood-vessels  are  connected  by  the  capil- 
laries ?  84.  What  change  takes  place  in  the  blood  while  it  is  pass- 
ing through  the  capillaries?  85.  What  differences  are  there  between 
the  vein  and  the  artery?  86.  What  have  the  veins  which  the  arteries 
do  not  have  ?  87.  Of  what  use  are  these  valves  ?  88.  How  long 
does  it  take  the  blood  to  travel  through  the  entire  body?  89.  What 
is  fainting  ?  90.  What  should  you  do  when  a  person  has  fainted  ? 
91.  Why  should  the  head  be  low  ?  92.  What  should  we  do  for 
slight  bleeding  ?  93.  What  should  we  do  for  serious  bleeding  which 
will  not  stop  ?  94.  What  is  apt  to  result  if  our  circulation  is  slug- 
gish ?  95.  What  effect  has  exercise  upon  the  circulation  ?  96.  What 
^ffect  has  too  much  or  too  violent  exercise  ?     97.  What  effect  has 


124  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY,   AND   HYGIENE. 

alcohol  on  the  heart  ?  98.  What  effect  has  alcohol  on  the  arteries  ? 
99.  What  is  apoplexy?  100.  What  effect  has  tobacco  upon  the  heart? 
101.  What  other  set  of  tubes  is  there  in  the  body  besides  the  arte- 
ries ?  102.  What  are  the  lymphatics  ?  103.  Of  what  use  are  the 
lymphatics  ?  104.  What  is  that  portion  of  the  lymphatics  which  we 
find  in  the  abdomen  called?  105.  Into  what  do  the  lymj)hatics 
finally  empty  ? 


CHAPTER  YTII. 

THE  OKGANS  OF  VOICE  AND  BKEATHING. 

24:4:.  Another  name  for  breathing  is  respiring,  and  hence  the 
act  of  breathing  is  called  respiration.  When  air  is  taken  into 
the  lungs  we  breathe  in  oi*  mspire ;  when  the  air  passes  out 
again,  we  breathe  out  or  Bxspire. 

245.  Course  of  the  Inspired  Air. — When  we  inspire, 
the  air  first  passes  through  the  nose,  then  into  the  throat,  next 
into  the  sound-producing  organ  in  the  neck,  the  larynx,  then 
it  passes  through  a  tube  running  down  the  front  of  the  neck, 
called  the  trachea  or  windpipe,  which  leads  to  the  lungs. 

246.  Each  one  of  these  parts  will  require  special  study.  The 
nose  will  be  left  until  the  study  of  the  sense  of  smell  is  taken 
up.  The  throat  has  already  been  discussed  in  the  chapter  on 
digestion  (Chapter  VI.). 

THE  ORGAN   OP   VOICE— THE   LARYNX. 

247.  The  organ  which  produces  sound  is  called  the  larynx. 

248.  Form  and  Situation  of  the  Larynx.— The  lar^mx  is 
a  triangular  box  (Figs.  63  and  69)  the  walls  of  which  are  formed 
of  gristle,  or  cartilage.  It  is  placed  at  the  upper  and  front  part 
of  the  neck,  and  can  readily  be  felt  as  a  hard  prominence  just 
below  the  chin. 

249.  Parts  of  the  Larynx. — The  larynx  is  formed  of  sev- 
eral pieces  of  cartilage  joined  together.  The  principal  part  is 
formed  by  a  large  triangular  piece  which  is  prominent  and 
pointed  in  front,  and   can   be  felt   beneath  the  skin.      This 


126  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 

pointed  iDortion  is  called  Adam's  a2yple,  and  is  larger  in  men 
than  in  women,  and  in  some  persons  it  stands  out  very  mucii. 


Fig.  03. — The  Larynx,  the  Trachea  or  Windpipe,  and  the  Bronchi. 


Just  above  this  triangular  cartilage  of  the  larynx,  and  covering 
up  its  upper  opening  somewhat,  is  another  j)iece  of  cartilage, 


THE   ORGANS    OF    VOICE   ATTD   BREATHING.  127 

called  tbe  epiglottis.     Below  the  triangular  cartilage  is  a  circu-- 
lar  piece  of  cartilage   which   resembles  a  seal-ring  in  shape. 
These  three  pieces  of  cartilage,  the  triangular,  the  circular,  and 
the  epiglottis,  form  the  main  part  of  the  larynx,  tliough  there 
are  a  few  smaller  pieces. 

250.  Epiglottis. — This  is  the  name  given  to  the  piece  of 
cartilage,  shaped  like  a  leaf,  which  covers  over  the  top  of  the 
larynx  when  we  swallow.  Usually  it  stands  up  straight,  but  in 
swallowing  it  is  pressed  down  over  the  top  of  the  larynx,  and 
then  the  food  slides  over  it  into  the  gullet.  If  it  be  remem- 
bered that  the  larynx  is  placed  in  front,  and  that  the  food  must 
pass  across  it  (Fig.  67),  it  will  be  seen  how  important  such  an 
arrangement  is  ;  but  as  will  soon  be  explained,  there  is  an- 
other way  in  which  the  food  is  prevented  from  going  into  the 
larynx  and  windpipe. 

251.  The  Vocal  Cords. — If  we  look  into  the  larynx,  we 
shall  find  that  there  is  a  shelf  projecting  on  each  side  (Figs.  64, 
65,  and  66)  and  that  these  two  shelves  can  be  moved ;  some- 
times they  move  toward  the  middle  and  meet  each  other,  at 
other  times  they  separate,  and  then  there  is  a  large  space  be- 
tween them.  These  are  called  the  vocal  cords,  because  they 
produce  the  voice-sounds  by  their  motion. 

252.  Protecting  the  Windpipe.— The  vocal  cords  are 
found  at  the  upper  part  of  the  larynx ;  when  they  come  to- 
gether tightly.,  they  close  the  larynx  completely,  so  that  noth- 
ing can  pass  into  it.  This  is  what  they  do  whenever  any  food 
or  solid  body  tries  to  get  into  the  larynx  or  windpipe.  It  will 
be  seen  how  necessary  this  is,  for  otherwise  we  should  always  be 
in  danger  of  being  choked.  Sometimes  the  food  is  swallowed 
unexpectedly,  and  the  vocal  cords  forget  to  close ;  then  we  say 
the  food  has  gone  down  the  wrong  loay.  This  is  very  distress- 
ing, causing  coughing  until  the  piece  of  food  is  dislodged.  In 
speaking  or  laughing  during  meals,  care  should  be  taken  that 
the  mouth  be  not  full,  otherwise  this  accident  may  happen. 

253.  The  Vocal  Cords  in  Breathing. — When  w e  z?2spiVe, 


128 


AlS^ATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 


the  vocal  cords  separate  widely,  so  as  to  let  the  air  pass  readily 
into  the  windpipe  and  into  our  lungs  (Fig.  64).  When  the  air 
passes  out  {expiration),  the  vocal  cords  again  come  together,  but 


Fig.  66. 


Fias.  64,  65,  nnd  66.— Showing  the  Position  of  the  Vocal  Cords  in  Breathing  and  in  Using 
the  Voice.  In  Fig.  64  the  cords  are  widely  separated,  as  they  are  in  inspiration;  in  Fig. 
65  the  cords  are  slightly  separated,  as  they  are  in  expiration;  in  Fig.  66  the  cords  are 
brought  together  closely,  as  they  are  when  sounds  are  proriuced. 


not  tightly,  there  being  still  some  space  left  between  the  two 
(Fig.  65). 

254.  How  Sounds  are  Produced Previous  to  makincr 

a  sound  we  usually  take  a  deep  breath.  Then  this  air  is  blown 
out  again,  and  as  it  passes  through  the  larynx,  between  the 
vocal  cords,  it  makes  these  vibrate,  and  through  the  rspid  mo- 


THE   OROANS   OF   VOICE   AND   BREATHING.         129 

tion  of  the  vocal  cords,  sound  is  produced.  There  are  many 
differences  in  the  quality  of  the  human  voice,  being  coarse  in 
some,  sweet  in  others,  high  in  some,  low  in  others.  Then  there 
are  other  peculiarities  of  the  voice,  by  which  we  recognize  our 
friends  by  hearing  them  speak. 

255.  It  depends  very  much  upon  how  the  vocal  cords  are 
placed  what  kind  of  sound  is  produced.  If  the  vocal  cords 
are  brought  closely  together  and  are  made  very  tight  the 
sound  will  be  high.  If  you  could  look  into  the  larynx  of  a  lady 
with  a  soprano  voice,  while  she  is  singing,  you  would  find 
the  vocal  cords  very  close  together ;  if,  on  the  contrary,  the 
sound  is  produced  while  the  cords  are  further  apart  and  less 
tense,  the  sound  will  be  low,  like  that  of  a  bass  voice. 

256.  Speaking. — Although  sound  is  produced  in  the  larynx, 
it  is  changed  by  other  parts,  principally  the  throat,  the  mouth, 
the  tongue,  and  the  lips.  These  change  the  sound  so  that 
words  are  spoken.  With  the  vocal  cords  alone  we  could  make 
sounds  as  in  singing  ;  but  to  speak,  we  must  change  these 
sounds  by  means  of  the  parts  already  mentioned.  For  in- 
stance, in  pronouncing  the  word  paper,  the  manner  in  which 
the  lips  come  together  will  be  noticed  ;  if  the  word  law  be 
pronounced,  the  tongue  will  touch  the  top  of  the  mouth. 

THE  TRACHEA,  OR  WINDPIPE. 

257.  Situation  and  Form. — If  the  finger  be  passed  along 
the  front  of  the  neck,  from  the  larynx  downward,  a  hard  tube 
can  be  felt  and  traced  down  to  the  top  of  the  breast-bone  ;  and 
then  it  can  no  longer  be  felt,  for  it  passes  behind  this  bone  into 
the  chest.  This  hollow  tube  is  called  the  windpipe,  or  trachea 
(Fig.  63).  It  serves  to  conduct  the  air  to  the  lungs,  after  it  has 
passed  through  the  nostrils,  nasal  passages,  throat,  and  larynx. 

258.  The  Air-passage  and  the  Food-passage. — The 
existence  of  another  tube  running  along  the  middle  of  the  neck 
— the  oesophagus  or  gullet — has  already  been  mentioned  in  the 


130 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 


cliapter  on   Digestion.      Its   purpose  is  to  cany  the  food  to 
the   stomach   after   it   has    been    chewed    in    the    mouth   and 

swallowed.  The  windj)ipe  is 
placed  in  front  of  the  gullet 
(Fig.  G7) ;  and  both  of  these 
tubes  pass  into  the  chest.  The 
windpipe  then  passes  to  the 
lungs.  The  gullet  j^  a  s  s  e  s 
through  an  opening  in  the  dia- 
phragm and  connects  with  the 
stomach  in  the  abdomen. 

259.  Rings  of  the  Wind- 
p i pe . — T h e  w i  n  d  p i p e  is 
formed  of  a  large  number  of 
rings  of  gristle,  joined  together 
by  a  thin  membrane  (Fig.  63). 
2G0.  Branching  of  the 
Windpipe. — After  having 
passed  into  the  chest  for  a 
short  distance,  the  windpipe 
divides  into  two  smaller  tubes  (Figs.  63  and  69).  These 
branches  are  called  the  bronchi,  there  being  two  of  them,  a 
right  and  a  left  bronchus.  Each  carries  the  air  from  the  wind- 
pipe to  the  corresponding  lung,  the  right  bronchial  tube  natu- 
rally passing  to  the  right  lung,  and  the  left  to  the  other 
side. 

THE  LUNGS. 


Fig.  07. — The  Air-i)asf!age  and  (h-;  Food- 
passage.  The  heavy  line  indicates  the  coiir.se 
of  the  food  through  month  and  gullet;  the 
dotted  line  show.s  the  course  of  air  through 
nostril  into  pharynx,  and  then  into  the  lar- 
ynx and  trachea,  which  are  placed  in  front  of 
the  gullet. 


261,  The  lung  are  the  organs  with  which  we  breathe.  There 
is  (Figs.  68  and  69)  a  right  lung  and  a  left  lung.  Between  these 
two  the  heart  is  placed  (Fig.  68).  The  lungs  and  the  heart  fill 
uj)  the  entire  space  in  the  chest. 

262.  Shape  of  the  Lungs.— Each  lung  is  shaped  some- 
what like  a  cone,  with  the  apex  above  and  the  base  below  (Fig. 


THE   ORGANS    OF    VOICE   AND   BREATHING.         131 

69).  The  lungs  are  very  light  and  contain  a  great  deal  of  air, 
and  float  when  placed  on  water.  Even  after  squeezing  out  ail 
tlie  air  we  can,  there  will  still  be  a  considerable  quantity  re- 
maining in  the  lung. 

263.  Structure  of  the  Lungs. — If  we  cut  into  the  lungs, 
we  find    they  are    formed  of    a    large    number  of  tubes  and 


Fig.  68. — The  Heart  and  Lungs.     On  each  side  the  kings  are  seen  ;  in  the  centre  is  the 
hcait ;  above  are  the  windpipe  and  the  large  blood-vessels  passing  to  and  from  the  heart. 


spaces  containing  air.  After  entering  the  lungs,  each  bron- 
chus divides  again  and  again  (Fig.  69),  each  branch,  known 
as  a  bronchial  tube,  becoming  smaller,  until  finally  the 
branches  of  each  bronchial  tube  have  become  so  small  that 
they  can  no  longer  be  seen  without  the  microscope  (Fig. 
70,  a). 


132 


AXATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 


Fig.  69. — The  Larynx,  Trachea,  Right  and  Left  Bronchus,  and  the  Lungs.     The  latter  have 
been  cut  open  to  show  the  method  of  division  and  subdivision  of  the  bronchi. 


264.  The    Air-Ve  s  i  c  I  e  s.— The 

smallest  branch  of  a  bronchus  (Fig, 
70,  a)  swells  so  as  to  end  in  a  lit- 
tle bag  containing  air,  called  an  air- 
space (Fig.  70,  b).  The  walls  of  these 
air-spaces  are  again  subdivided  so 
as  to  form  a  large  number  of  small 
sacs  called  air-vef<icles.  The  walls  of 
these  air-vesicles  are  very  thin  and 
contain  many  blood-vessels.  From 
this  description  it  will  be  seen  that 
the  lungs  really  consist  of  a  great 
collection  of  small  sacs  or  spaces  filled 
with  air. 


Fia.  70. — Tho  Air-vesicles,  a. 
The  smallest  bi-anch  of  the  sub- 
divisions of  a  bronchial  tube  :  b, 
the  dilated  pas-ape  or  air-space, 
into  which  this  expands ;  c,  the 
smallest  spaces,  air-vesicles. 


THE   OEGANS    OF   VOICE  AI^D   BREATHING.         133 

265.  The  Pleura. — Upon  their  surface  the  lungs  are  cov- 
ered with  a  sheet  of  smooth  membrane,  called  the  j^leura,  which 
also  lines  the  inner  surface  of  the  chest.  This  smooth  mem- 
brane allows  the  lungs  to  rub  against  the  wall  of  the  chest 
without  pain  or  friction.  The  pleura  resembles  the  peritoneum 
of  the  abdomen  and  serves  a  similar  purpose. 

266.  Breathing  is  Involuntary. — Like  the  beating  of  the 
heart,  breathing  takes  place  without  the  use  of  our  will-power. 
It  continues  whether  we  are  awake  or  asleep,  and  even  when 
we  are  unconscious.  It  is  possible  to  breathe  faster  than 
usual  for  a  little  while,  or  to  hold  the  breath  for  a  very  short 
period,  but  these  are  merely  temporary  changes  which  cannot 
be  continued,  for  breathing  is  not  under  the  control  of  the 
will. 

267.  Movements  of  the  Chest  in  Breathing. — In  in- 
spiration air  is  taken  in  which  passes  to  the  lungs  and  expands 
them.  Watching  the  chest  while  this  is  taking  place,  it  is 
found  that  the  ribs  rise  and  that  the  chest  becomes  wider.  In 
expiration,  the  air  is  allowed  to  pass  from  the  lungs,  these  be- 
coming smaller  ;  the  ribs  fall  and  the  chest  again  becomes  nar- 
rower. When  the  lungs  are  filled  with  air,  they  press  down 
the  diaphragm  ;  and  this  then  crowds  down  upon  the  organs 
contained  in  the  abdomen,  which  are  pushed  out;  hence  the 
bulging  of  the  abdomen  in  inspiration. 

268.  Mouth-breathing. — In  breathing,  the  air  should  be 
drawn  through  the  nose  and  not  through  the  mouth.  Many 
children  breathe  through  the  mouth — an  injurious  practice 
which  results  in  keeping  the  mouth  open  constantly,  giving 
rise  to  a  stupid  expression  of  the  face  and  allowing  the  air  to 
reach  the  lungs  in  an  improperly  warmed  and  impure  condi- 
tion. 

269.  Frequency  of  Breathing.— Usually  we  breathe  about 
twenty  times  a  minute.  Young  children  breathe  often er.  After 
exercise,  w^e  breathe  oftener  than  twent}^  times  per  minute. 
When  asleep,  we  breathe  less  frequently. 


134  ATsTATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIE^^E. 

270.  Changes  which  Breathing  Produces  in  the 
Blood  and  Tissues. — It  has  already  been  stated  that  the  ob- 
ject of  breathmg  is  to  purify  the  blood.  How  this  is  done  has 
also  been  explained.  But  the  subject  is  so  important  that  it 
will  be  well  to  review  it  briefly.  The  air  passes  into  the  air- 
spaces of  the  lungs.  In  the  thin  walls  of  these  air-spaces  there 
is  a  large  number  of  very  small  capillaries.  In  this  way  the 
blood  in  the  capillaries  is  separated  from  the  air  by  very  thin 
tissue  only,  and  gases  can  pass  from  the  air  to  the  blood  and 
from  the  blood  to  the  air  very  readily.  In  breathing,  the  blood 
takes  oxygen  from  the  air,  and  in  exchange  it  gives  it  the  poi- 
sonous carbonic  acid  gas,  moisture,  warmth,  and  a  second  poi- 
sonous gas  which  will  be  described  shortly. 

271.  Changes  Produced  in  the  Air  by  Breathing. — 
While  the  air  passes  through  the  lungs  it  has  oxygen  taken  from 
it — this  is  the  first  change.  The  second  change  is  that  it  re- 
ceives some  of  the  poisonous  cai'bonic  acid  gas  from  the  blood. 
Third,  it  takes  moisture  from  the  blood.  If  you  breathe  upon 
the  window-pane  you  can  easily  see  this  moisture ;  and  in 
winter  when  it  is  cold  you  can  notice  the  moisture  in  the  air 
which  we  expire,  because  it  becomes  visible  as  soon  as  it  meets 
the  cold  air.  Fourth,  the  air  which  we  exhale  is  warmer  than 
that  which  we  inhale,  because  it  has  taken  some  of  the  heat 
from  the  blood. 

272.  Finally,  the  air  takes  from  the  blood  a  certain  poisonous 
gas  which  has  a  disagreeable  smell  The  exact  nature  of  this 
unnamed  gas  is  not  known,  but  it  is  thought  to  be  a  mixture  of 
many  gases.  It  is  known  by  its  smell.  If  you  come  from  the 
open  air  into  a  crowded  room  you  find  it  disagreeable  to  breathe 
for  a  little  while,  because  the  air  does  not  seem  fresh  ;  and  you 
call  it  close,  and  if  it  is  very  bad  you  say  it  is  foul.  It  is  this 
bad-smelling  gas  which  gives  this  odor.  It  is  fortunate  that 
this  exceedingly  poisonous  gas  has  a  bad  smell,  for  otherwise 
we  should  not  know  that  the  air  was  no  longer  fresh  and  needed 
changing.     If  we  stay  in  such  a  close  room  for  a  little  while,  we 


THE  OROAKS   OF   VOICE  AND   BREATHING.         135 

no  longer  notice  the  smell,  because  we  have  become  accustomed 
to  it. 

273.  Effects  of  Impure  Air. — Much  time  spent  in  close 
rooms  produces  a  sleepy,  dull,  and  tired  feeling  ;  the  complexion 
suffers  and  we  no  longer  look  so  bright  as  we  did.  The  blood 
cannot  be  purified  in  such  bad  air.  In  this  way  all  the  tissues 
of  the  body  become  pale  and  weak,  and  the  organs  no  longer 
work  as  they  should. 

274.  "Purification  of  the  Air.— If  the  air  is  constantly 
being  made  impure  by  our  breathing,  it  would  seem  quite 
natural  to  ask  :  Why  is  it  that  the  air  does  not  become  so 
impure  after  a  while  that  we  cannot  live  in  it  ?  This  would  re- 
sult if  God  had  not  provided  two  great  purifiers — sunlight  and 
plants.  These  are  the  great  natural  purifiers  and  change  the  bad 
air,  making  it  as  good  as  it  was  before.  You  have  no  doubt 
noticed  how  stale  it  smells  in  all  dark  places,  such  as  cellars. 
This  is  because  the  sunlight  never  enters  to  purify  the  air. 

275.  The  way  in  which  the  plants  purify  the  aii^  is  still  more 
wonderful ;  they  make  use  of  the  poisonous  gases  as  their 
food.     Carbonic  acid  gas  is  necessary  for  plants  to  live  and 

grow.     Let  us  stop  to  consider  how  plants  live  and  grow  : 

276.  How  Plants  Live  and  Grow. — Plants  breathe  in 
poisonous  gases  from  the  air  and  breathe  out  pure  oxygen.  Be- 
sides the  poisonous  carbonic  acid  gas  which  they  take  from  the 
air,  they  also  absorb  moisture  and  salts  from  the  ground. 
From  all  these  plants  form  their  stems  and  leaves,  and  they 
grow  until  we  could  hardly  believe  that  the  big  tree  has  grown 
from  a  small  plant  with  no  other  nourishment  than  what  has 
just  been  mentioned.  In  order  to  do  this,  plants  must  have 
sunlight — they  will  not  grow  in  the  dark.  So  that  what  is  poi- 
sonous to  the  animal  is  food  to  the  plant.  And  in  this  wa}^  pure 
oxygen  is  returned  to  the  air  and  the  poisonous  carbonic  acid 
gas  is  gotten  rid  of. 

277.  Ventilation. — Ventilation  means  allowing  impure  air 
to  escape  from  our  rooms  and  letting  fresh  air  takes  its  place. 


136  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 

This  is  very  necessary.  We  have  ah'eady  spoken  of  the  efiects 
of  impure  air.  If  a  man  were  locked  in  a  room  and  everything 
were  tightly  closed  so  that  no  fresh  air  could  enter,  no  matter 
how  much  food  and  drink  he  had,  he  would  soon  die,  because 
his  breathing  would  be  constantly  making  the  air  of  the  room 
more  and  more  impure,  and  finally  he  would  die  from  want  of 
pure  air. 

278.  In  the  summer  it  is  quite  easy  to  ventilate  our  rooms, 
for  all  we  need  to  do  is  to  open  the  windows  wide  and  the 
fresh  air  will  stream  in  and  the  impure  air  escape  at  the  same 
time.  But  in  the  winter  it  is  more  difficult ;  for  the  outside 
air,  while  it  is  fresh  and  pure,  is  also  cold  ;  and  if  we  opened 
the  windows  very  wide  we  should  feel  cold.  It  is  fortunate 
that  our  windows  are  not,  as  a  rule,  very  tight  fitting  ;  hence 
more  or  less  air  gets  in  through  the  cracks.  But  it  is  well  to 
draw  down  the  window  a  little  from  the  top,  for  the  foul  air  is 
lighter  than  the  fresh  air  and  is  always  found  near  the  ceil  ing- 
ot the  room. 

279.  Another  very  good  way  of  ventilating  a  room  is  to  push 
up  the  lower  window  about  six  inches  and  to  fasten  a  piece  of 
board  in  front  of  the  open  space  which  you  make  in  this  way. 
Or  instead  of  a  board  a  piece  of  canvas  will  be  better  j'et,  and 
it  can  be  made  to  look  nice  by  painting  or  embroidering  on  it. 
In  this  way  the  fresh  air  will  come  in  through  the  canvas  be- 
low, and  the  foul  air  will  go  out  in  the  opening  between  the 
upper  and  lower  portions  of  the  window,  as  is  show  in  Fig. 
71.  Certain  methods  of  heating  rooms  are  also  valuable  as 
means  of  ventilating  them.  The  open-grate  fire  is  one  of  the 
best  means  of  supplying  warmth,  because  it  furnishes  such 
a  ready  escape  for  the  impure  air,  which  passes  up  the  chim- 
ney. 

280.  In  ventilating  rooms  it  must  be  remembered  that  there 
should  be  no  draughts  of  air  upon  the  persons  in  the  room,  for 
otherwise  they  will  catch  cold.  And  also  that  a  room  cannot 
be  healthy  if  no  sunlight  ever  enters  it.     In  some  of  our  houses 


THE   ORGANS   OF   VOICE   AND   BREATHING.         137 

nowadays,  and  especially  in  what  we  call  flats,  many  of  the 
rooms  are  dark  and  never  have  any  sunlight,  and  must  be 


Fig.  71. — A  Ready  Method  of  Ventilating  Rooms.     The  arrows  above  indicate  the  escape 
of  the  impure  air  ;  those  below,  the  entrance  of  fresh  air. 


unhealthy,  as  the  air  in  them  can  never  be  so  pure  as  in  light 
rooms. 


138 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 


281.  Effect    of   Tight    Clothing    upon    Breathing.— 

Tight  clothing  presses  upon  the  chest,  and  does  not  allow  the 
lungs  to  expand  as  they  should  ;  in  this  way  not  enough  air 
can  enter  the  lungs  and  the  blood  suffers,  and  from  this  also 
the  rest  of  the  body.  Besides,  if  children  dress  so  tightly 
about  the  chest,  it  will  keep  the  chest  from  getting  its  proper 


Fkj.  7-3.— a  Deformed  Chcst,the  Result  of  too  Tight  Clothing.  Compare  with  the  natural  chest 
shown  in  Chapter  II.,  Fig.  18.     The  dotted  line  indicates  the  position  of  the  diaphragm. 


shape  and  size  (Fig.  72).  We  should  try  to  have  as  broad  a 
chest  as  possible,  and  should  always  remember  to  throw  our 
shoulders  back,  and  to  sit  and  stand  erect. 

282.  Effects  of  Tobacco  Smoke  upon  the  Lungs  and 
Throat. — Tobacco  smoke  is  irritating  to  the  lungs  of  many 
people,  and  makes  them  cough.  The  throat  also  suffers,  and 
becomes  red  and  sore.  Such  a  throat  is  called  by  the  doctor 
smoker's  sore  throat. 


THE   ORGANS    OF   VOICE   AND    BREATHING.         139 


SYNOPSIS. 

The  Organ  of  Voice — The  Larynx  : 

1.  Form — Triangular  box. 

2.  Structure — Walls  formed  of  cartilage. 

3.  Situation — Upper  and  front  part  of  neck,  just  below  chin. 

4.  Function  : 

a.  Passage  of  air  to  windpipe  and  lungs. 
h.  Production  of  sound. 

5.  Parts  : 

a.  Triangular  piece  (including  Adam's  apple). 
h.  Circular  j)iece. 

c.  Epiglottis. 

d.  Vocal  Cords : 

(1.)  Protect  windpipe. 
(2.)  Move  in  respiration. 

(3. )  Produce  the  voice-sounds  by  their  vibration 
The  Organs  of  Breathing  : 
1."  Larynx. 

2.  Trachea  or  windpipe. 

3.  Eight  and  left  bronchus. 

4.  Lungs. 
Trachea  : 

1.  Situation — Along  front  of  neck  in  middle  line. 

2.  Form — ^Cylindrical  tube. 

3.  Structure— Eings    of   cartilage  Joined   together  by  mem- 
brane. 

4.  Function— Conveys  air  from  larynx  to  lungs. 

5.  Branches — Eight  and  left  bronchus. 
The  Lungs  : 

1.  Situation — The  cavity  of  the  chest,  on  each  side  of  the 
heart. 

2.  Form — Cone-shajoed,  with  apex  above. 

3.  Function — To    purify   the   blood    by   allowing   it   to   be 
brought  in  close  contact  wdth  the  air. 

4.  Divisions — Eight  and  left  lung. 

5.  ^ructure  : 

a.  Bronchial  tubes. 


140  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 


,  X    -li   J-^JXW^V^VJ.    J.    J 


h.  Air-spaces. 

c.  Air-vesicles. 

d.  Pleura,  covering  outside. 
Breathing  : 

1.  Is  involuntary. 

2.  Accompanied  by  certain  movements  of  chest : 

a.  In  inspiration,  chest  becomes  wider  and  ribs  rise. 

b.  In  expiration,  chest  becomes  narrower  and  ribs  fall. 

3.  Frequency — About  twenty  per  minute  ;    more  frequently 
in  young  children  and  after  exercise. 

4.  Changes  produced  in  blood  : 

a.  Gains  oxygen  and  becomes  brighter. 
1).  Loses  carbonic  acid  gas,  other  poisonous  gas,  moist- 
ure, and  heat. 

5.  Changes  produced  in  air : 

a.  Loses  oxygen. 

b.  Has  added  : 

(1.)  Carbonic  acid  gas. 

(2.)  Poisonous  ill-smelling  gas. 

(3.)  Moisture. 

(4.)  Warmth. 

6.  Effects  of  impure  air  : 

a.  Poor  health. 

b.  Sleepy,  dull,  and  tired  feeling. 

7.  Efifects  of  bad  habits  : 

a.  Mouth-breathing ;  stupid  expression  ;  air  improperly 
■warmed  and  cleansed. 

b.  Tight  clothing  about  chest ;  deformed  chest. 

c.  Tobacco  smoke  ;  cough  ;  sore  throat. 
Purification  of  the  air : 

1.  Natural  : 

a.  Sunlight. 

b.  Plants,  by  using  the  carbonic  acid  gas  as  part  of  their 
food  and  giving  back  oxygen  to  the  air. 

2.  Artificial — affecting  dwellings  ;  ventilation. 


THE   ORGANS   OF   VOICE   AND   BREATHING.         141 


QUESTIONS. 

1.  Wliat  is  the  meaning  of  the  word  respiration?  2.  What  is 
the  definition  of  to  inspire  ?  3.  What  is  the  definition  of  to  ex- 
pire ?  4c.  Through  what  different  jparts  does  the  air  pass  before 
it  reaches  the  lungs  ?  5.  What  is  the  organ  of  voice  called  ?  6. 
Where  is  the  larynx  ?  7.  What  is  its  shape  ?  8.  How  is  it  formed  ? 
9.  W^hat  is  Adam's  apple?  10.  What  is  the  epiglottis?  11.  Of 
what  use  is  the  epiglottis?  12.  What  are  the  vocal  cords?  13. 
How  do  they  protect  the  larynx  and  the  windpipe  ?  14.  How  do  we 
prevent  food  from  going  the  wrong  way  ?  15.  How  do  the  vocal 
cords  move  in  breathing  ?  16.  How  is  sound  produced  ?  17,  What 
makes  the  difference  in  the  kind  of  sound  produced  ?  18.  In  what 
position  are  the  vocal  cords  in  singing  high  notes  ?  19.  In  what 
position  in  breathing?  20.  What  other  parts  change  the  sound  in 
speaking?  21.  Could  we  speak  with  the  larynx  alone?  22.  How 
can  you  prove  that  the  lips  and  the  tongue  take  part  in  speaking  ? 
23.  Where  is  the  windpipe  ?  24.  W^hat  is  another  name  for  it  ? 
25.  Where  does  it  lead  to  ?  26.  What  tube  runs  along  together 
with  the  windpipe  ?  27.  Which  is  in  front,  the  windpipe  or  the  gul- 
let? 28.  How  is  the  windpipe  formed?  29.  Wheje  does  it  end 
and  what  becomes  of  it?  30.  What  are  the  bronchi,  and  where  do 
they  go  to  ?  31.  What  are  the  lungs  ?  32.  Where  are  they  ?  33. 
How  7nany  are  there  ?  34.  What  is  the  shape  of  each  ?  35.  Are 
they  light  or  heavy  ?  36.  Why  are  they  so  light  ?  37.  How  are  the 
lungs  formed?  38.  What  are  the  air-sjpaces?  39.  What  are  the 
lungs  covered  by  on  the  outside  ?  40.  Do  we  use  our  will-power  in 
breathing?  41.  Can  we  stop  breathing  when  we  want  to?  42. 
How  do  we  breathe  ?  43.  What  change  do  we  see  when  we  look  at 
the  chest  while  we  are  breathing?  44.  What  change  if  we  look  at 
the  abdomen  ?  45.  Should  we  breathe  through  the  mouth  or 
through  the  nose  ?  46.  How  often  per  minute  do  we  usually 
breathe  ?  47.  What  difference  is  there  when  we  exercise  ?  48. 
When  we  are  asleep  ?  49.  What  changes  does  breathing  produce 
in  the  blood?  50.  Where  and  how  do  these  changes  occur?  51. 
What  changes  are  produced  in  the  air  by  breathing  ?  52.  What  is 
taken  from  the  air  ?  53.  What  is  given  to  it  ?  54.  What  poisonous 
gases  are  added  to  the  air  by  breathing  ?    55.  What  makes  rooms 


142  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 

smell  close  and  foul  wlien  many  j)eople  are  in  them  and  they  are 
not  prof)erly  aired  ?  56.  What  are  the  effects  of  impure  air  ?  57. 
How  is  the  air  purified  ?  58.  What  are  the  two  great  purifiers  of 
nature?  59.  How  do  plants  purify  the  air?  60.  What  does  the 
food  of  plants  consist  of  ?  61.  Can  plants  thrive  without  sunlight? 
62.  What  is  ventilation?  63.  Could  we  live  in  a  room  if  the  air 
were  not  changed?  64.  What  is  a  good  method  of  ventilating 
rooms  in  winter?  65.  In  what  part  of  the  room  do  we  find  most 
of  the  impure  air  ?  66.  Why  are  cold  draughts  undesirable  ?  67. 
What  effect  has  sunlight  upon  the  air  of  a  room?  68.  Can  a  room 
into  which  the  sun  never  shines  be  healthy  ?  69.  What  effect  has 
tight  clothing  around  the  chest  upon  breathing?  70.  What  effect 
has  tobacco-smoke  upon  the  lungs?  71.  What  effect  has  it  upon 
the  throat  ? 


CHAPTEE  IX. 
THE  HEAT  OF  THE  BODY. 

283.  Have  jou  ever  stoiDped  to  think  how  it  is  that  on  the 
coldest  day  in  winter  our  bodies  remain  warm,  even  thouoh 
we  go  out  into  the  open  air  ?  It  may  be  necessary  to  have  a 
big  fire  in  our  rooms,  but  still  our  blood  remains  just  as  warm 
as  in  summer.  You  may  say  it  is  due  to  the  clothing  we  wear, 
but  this  is  not  so.  For  if  you  took  a  cold  stone  and  wrapped 
ever  so  much  clothing  around  it,  you  could  not  warm  it.  Our 
clothes  keep  in  the  heat  of  the  body,  but  they  cannot  produce 
any. 

284.  The  Body  may  be  Compared  to  a  Stove.— We 
can  compare  the  human  body  to  a  stove,  for  there  is  some  re- 
semblance in  the  manner  in  which  heat  is  produced.  The  food 
which  we  take  in  by  the  stomach  and  the  air  which  we  breathe 
combine  to  form  the  fuel,  just  as  coal  and  wood  form  the  fuel 
in  the  stove.  This  human  fuel  is  then  received  by  the  organs 
of  digestion,  and  changed  and  liquefied,  so  that  it  can  be  used 
by  the  various  parts  of  the  body.  The  blood  distributes  the 
fluid  nourishment  to  the  tissues  of  the  body,  and  also  serves 
to  relieve  these  tissues  of  the  poisonous  carbonic  acid  gas,  and 
to  supply  them  with  oxygen  which  it  has  absorbed  while  pass- 
ing through  the  lungs.  As  the  tissues  of  the  body  are  used  up 
in  performing  the  work  required  of  them,  they  are  constantly 
being  built  up  again  by  the  nourishing  materials  which  the 
blood  conveys  to  them. 

285.  Combustion. — This  process  of  building  up  the  various 
parts  of  the  body  by  the  nutritious  portions  of  the  food,  changed 


144  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    Al^D   HYGIENE. 

to  a  fluid  form  by  the  organs  of  digestion,  is  followed  by  a  con- 
sumption, or  using-up,  of  the  tissues  when  we  use  them  in  any 
way — in  other  words,  when  we  ivoy^k.  This  is  called  combustion, 
and  means  a  slow  burning,  and  it  is  accomplished  by  means  of 
the  oxygen,  which  the  blood  carries  to  the  tissues. 

286.  What  Results  from  the  Burning  of  Fuel— Work. 
— If  we  recall  the  resemblance  of  the  human  body  to  a  stove, 
and  the  similarity  of  our  food  to  the  fuel,  it  will  be  instructive 
to  ascertain  what  becomes  of  the  fuel  consumed  in  an  ordinary 
fire.  Take  a  locomotive,  for  example.  Its  fuel  consists  of  coal, 
which,  in  burning,  combines  with  the  ox^'gen  of  the  air,  thus 
producing  combustion.  As  a  result  of  this  combustion,  heat 
is  produced,  which  changes  the  water  in  the  boiler  into  steam. 
The  steam  turns  the  wheels  of  the  locomotive  and  furnishes 
the  jiotcer  which  draws  the  cars,  and  enables  us  to  travel  many 
hundred  miles  a  day. 

287.  Another  Result  of  the  Burning  of  Fuel— Ref- 
use.— As  has  just  been  explained,  one  result  of  the  burning 
of  fuel  in  the  locomotive  is  steam,  this  combustion  taking  place 
with  the  aid  of  the  air.  If  there  is  no  access  of  air  there  can 
be  no  combustion.  Besides  steam  there  is  also  produced  refuse 
— ashes  and  smoke.  These  are  of  no  value,  and  hence  they  are 
correctly  called  refuse,  and  allowed  to  escape,  the  smoke  passing 
into  the  air  and  the  ashes  thrown  away.  What  was  wanted  from 
the  fuel  was  the  steam ;  this  does  the  inork,  whether  it  moves 
a  locomotive  or  a  steamboat,  or  lifts  an  elevatoi',  or  pumps 
up  water  ;  and  all  these  are  merely  examples  of  different  kinds 
of  work.  Fuel,  then,  consumed  with  the  aid  of  the  oxygen  of 
the  air,  has  resulted  in  v)or/c,  which  is  of  the  greatest  value  to 
us  ;  and  in  smoke  and  ashes,  which  are  refuit-e,  and  which  we 
throw  away. 

288.  What  Results  from  the  Combustion  of  Our 
Food. — If,  now,  we  examine  what  becomes  of  the  food  which 
is  consumed  by  our  tissues,  both  that  which  we  take  in  by  the 
stomach,  and  the  oxygen  which  the  blood  takes  from  the  air, 


THE  HEAT  OF  THE  BODY.  145 

we  find  that  the  same  things  are  produced,  namely,  heat  and 
work,  which  are  of  value  to  us,  and  rtfaae  materiah,  Avhich  are 
of  no  use  to  us,  and  which  are  removed  from  the  body.  It  has 
already  been  explained  how  the  food  is  changed  and  then  car- 
ried to  the  tissues  by  the  blood,  and  also  how  the  oxygen  of 
the  air  is  carried  to  the  tissues.  Both  of  these  are  fuel,  and 
they  unite  with  the  tissues  ;  the  oxygen  unites  with  the  tissues 
and  consumes  them,  and  then  the  new  food  builds  them  up 
again.  It  may  be  asked,  Why  must  the  tissues  constantly 
be  used  up  and  then  restored  ?  The  answer  is,  Because  we  are 
constantly  doing  work  and  require  heat ;  and  to  get  these,  the 
tissues  must  be  consumed  in  our  body,  just  as  wood  and  coal 
are  in  the  locomotive. 

289.  Casting  off  the  Refuse  Materials  from  the  Body. 
— The  refuse  materials,  which  are  no  longer  of  any  use,  and 
which  would  be  harmful  if  retained  in  the  body,  may  be  com- 
pared to  the  smoke  and  the  ashes  which  escape  from  the  loco- 
motive. The  organs  which  serve  to  remove  them  from  the 
body  are  the  shin,  the  lungs,  the  kidneys,  and  the  intestines. 
The  skin  removes  certain  poisonous  gases,  and  also  certain 
other  materials  in  the  perspiration — hence  the  necessity  of 
keeping  the  pores  open.  The  lungs,  as  has  just  been  ex- 
plained, remove  carbonic  acid  gas  and  other  poisonous  gases 
in  the  expired  air.  The  kidneys  remove  impurities  in  liquid 
form.     The  intestines  remove  the  solid  refuse. 

290.  Food  and  Oxygen  Produce  Heat  and  Work. — 
It  does  not  require  much  study  to  appreciate  how  much  work 
the  body  is  constantly  doing.  Even  when  asleep  the  body  is 
doing  work.  The  heart  is  working  faithfully,  beating  to  sujd- 
ply  all  parts  of  the  body  with  life's  fluid,  the  blood  ;  the  chest 
is  rising  and  falling  and  the  lungs  expanding  to  take  in  air  ; 
and  there  are  many  other  examples  of  work,  of  constant  work. 
When  a  man  is  deep  in  thought,  it  might  be  considered  that 
he  is  idle  and  resting,  but  this  would  be  incorrect.  Such  a 
man  is  working  very  hard  with  his  brain,  and  such  work  is 


146  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 

as  tiring  as  working  with  the  hands.  Other  examples  of  work 
we  see  around  us  every  day — the  men  digging,  paving  the 
streets,  and  building  the  houses.  When  hard  work  is  required 
more  food  is  necessary  than  when  persons  are  idle. 

291.  Warm-blooded  and  Cold-blooded  Animals.— If 
you  touch  a  stone  in  the  street  it  will  be  cold  in  winter,  but 
warm  in  summer  if  the  sun  has  been  shining  upon  it.  But 
though  it  may  feel  warm,  it  has  no  heat  of  its  own,  and  is 
simply  warm  or  cold  according  as  the  air  around  it  is  warm  or 
cold.  If  you  put  it  in  a  fire  it  will  become  hot,  but  if  taken 
out  a^'ain  it  becomes  as  cold  as  the  bodies  around  it.  This  is 
the  case  with  all  bodies  which  have  no  life.  But  with  animals 
it  is  different ;  they  have  heat  of  their  own,  and  it  does  not 
matter  whether  the  air  around  them  is  cold  or  warm,  their 
blood  will  be  about  the  same.  Animals  can  be  divided  into 
two  classes.  One  class,  the  fishes,  have  cold  blood  ;  you  will 
remember  how  cold  and  clammy  a  fish  feels.  Fishes  belong 
to  the  cold-blooded  animals.  Most  animals,  however,  have  warm 
blood,  and  hence  are  called  waynn-hlooded  animals.  Most  of  the 
animals  we  see  are  of  this  class.  Birds  have  especially  warm 
blood. 

292.  Heat  of  the  Human  Body. — The  heat  of  the  human 
body  is  about  98  de2:rees  as  measured  with  the  tliermomeAer. 
All  of  you  have  probably  seen  a  thermometer.  It  is  a  long, 
hollow  tube  of  glass,  containing  a  silvery  fluid  called  quicksilver. 
Heat  makes  the  quicksilver  rise,  and  the  more  heat  the  higher 
it  rises  ;  so  that  we  tell  how  hot  anything  is  by  the  height  to 
which  the  fluid  in  the  thermometer  rises,  there  being  numbers 
attached  to  the  frame  of  the  instrument  to  express  the  heat. 
Ninety-eight  degrees  expresses  the  heat  of  our  blood,  and  hence 
this  is  called  blood-Jieit.  On  a  very  warm  day  in  summer  you 
may  read  about  the  thermometer  having  risen  to  blood-heat ; 
this  means  98  decrees. 

293.  The  skin  is  never  so  warm  as  the  blood.  In  winter  the 
skin,  especially  of  the  hands,  may  be  quite  cold,  and  yet  the 


THE   HEAT   OF   THE   BODY.  147 

blood-heat  remains  the  same.  On  the  other  hand,  our  skin 
may  be  very  warm  in  summer,  and  still  the  heat  of  the  blood 
does  not  rise.  So  that  the  blood  and  the  interior  of  the  body 
have  the  same  heat  in  summer  as  in  winter,  namely,  98  de- 
grees. 

294.  Heat  of  the  Body  in  Sickness. — When  sick  with 
fever,  the  blood  becomes  hotter ;  and  if  this  increase  of  heat  is 
more  than  a  few  degrees,  it  is  very  dangerous. 

295.  Regulation  of  the  Body  Heat. — In  summer,  when 
it  is  warm,  there  does  not  need  to  be  so  much  heat  produced  in 
the  body,  and  we  naturally  take  less  food,  and  wear  lighter  cloth- 
ing, and  do  not  work  so  hard  as  in  the  cold  months.  In  winter, 
on  account  of  the  coldness  in  the  air,  we  must  have  an  extra 
supply  of  body  heat,  which  we  produce  by  eating  more,  by 
wearing  heavier  clothing,  and  by  doing  more  work.  In  winter 
we  should  take  more  exercise  than  at  any  other  time  of  the 
year.  Nature  usually  gives  us  a  better  appetite  in  winter  than 
in  summer,  and  we  usually  eat  more  meat  than  when  the 
weather  is  warm. 

296.  There  is  another  way  in  which  we  increase  the  warmth 
of  the  body  in  winter,  and  that  is  by  wearing  warmer  clothing. 
But  it  has  just  been  stated  that  clothes  do  not  produce  heat ; 
then  why  do  we  wear  thicker  and  warmer  clothes  in  winter  than 
in  summer  ?  This  statement  is  true,  clothes  do  not  produce  heat, 
but  they  prevent  the  warmth  from  leaving  the  body  too  quickly. 
In  winter  the  air  is  very  cold,  and  the  heat  of  the  body  would 
pass  into  the  air  very  soon,  to  prevent  which  we  put  on  warm 
clothing. 

297.  Warm  Clothing. — Woollen  clothing  is  the  warmest. 
In  winter  it  is  well  to  wear  flannel  next  to  the  skin.  In  sum- 
mer linen  clothing  is  the  coolest.  Black  clothes  are  warmer 
than  white  ones  because  they  absorb  more  external  heat.  This 
can  easily  be  shown  in  the  following  way  :  If  you  take  two 
pieces  of  cloth  of  the  same  kind  and  size,  and  place  them  on 
the  snow,  that  under  the  black  cloth  will  be  melted  before  that 


148  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY,   AND   HYGIENE. 

under  the  white   one.     This  is  the  reason  for  wearing  dark 
clothino-  in  winter  and  lii^ht  colors  in  summer. 

298.  How  to  Keep  Warm  in  Winter. — In  winter  we  de- 
pend upon  exercise,  additional  food,  and  warmer  clothing  to 
keep  us  warm.  And  all  three  of  these  must  be  combined  if  we 
want  to  feel  comfortable.  You  have  seen  car- drivers  slapping 
their  arras  about  on  a  cold  da}'.  This  gives  them  exercise  and 
makes  them  warm  ;  it  makes  the  warm  blood  circulate  faster, 
and  this  brings  heat  to  the  tissues.  If  you  stand  still  on  a 
wintry  day  the  feet  soon  become  cold.  This  is  very  unhealthy, 
and  is  a  sign  that  you  should  exercise  in  order  to  get  more 
blood  back  into  the  feet.  If  we  go  out  on  a  cold  day  before 
breakfast  we  feel  very  chilly ;  and  everyone  knows  how  much 
better  he  is  able  to  stand  the  cold  after  having  had  a  warm 
meal. 

299.  How  to  Keep  Cool  in  Summer. — In  summer  we 
should  eat  less  meat  and  less  food  than  in  winter.  Usually  our 
apjDetite  is  not  so  good  in  summer  as  it  is  in  winter,  and  natu- 
ralh',  therefore,  we  take  less  food,  and  we  should  wear  light 
clothing.  Everything  we  do  during  the  warm  parts  of  the  sum- 
mer days  we  should  do  slowly  and  should  7wt  hurry.  We  should 
not  walk  much  in  the  sun  without  being  shaded. 

300.  How  the  Body  is  Kept  Cool  in  Summer. — It 
would  seem  difficult  to  prevent  the  body  from  being  over- 
heated in  summer  when  the  air  around  us  is  so  warm  ;  and  ^'■ou 
might  wonder,  too,  why  it  is  that  the  blood  of  a  locomotive  en- 
gineer, or  of  a  cook,  who  is  in  front  of  a  hot  fire  all  day  long,  is 
no  warmer  than  that  of  jDersons  who  can  keep  cool.  There  are 
two  ways  in  which  the  bodily  heat  is  prevented  from  rising 
above  98  degrees  when  persons  must  be  near  furnaces  and 
fires  or  are  otherwise  exposed  to  the  heat. 

301.  Both  methods  depend  upon  the  fact  that  ivhenever 
moisture  or  ivater  leaves  any  surface  it  makes  that  surface  cold  ; 
that  is,  it  takes  some  of  the  heat  of  that  surface  with  it.  In 
India,  the  drinking-water  is  cooled  by  placing  it  in  porous  clay 


THE  HEAT   OF  THE  EODY.  149 

vessels  wbicli  allow  a  little  of  the  water  to  soak  through,  after 
which  it  passes  ofT  iuto  the  air  and  thus  makes  the  rest  of  the 
water  cool.  If  you  wet  your  hand  and  then  hold  it  in  the  air, 
it  feels  cold,  because  the  water  in  passing  into  the  air  takes 
some  of  the  heat  of  the  hand  with  it. 

302.  In  this  way  our  blood  does  not  get  any  warmer  in  sum- 
mer than  in  winter.  For  in  summer  more  moisture  leaves  the 
body  than  in  winter.  Moisture  leaves  the  body  in  two  ways  : 
By  the  lungs  and  by  the  skin.  We  breathe  more  rapidly  in 
summer  than  in  winter,  especially  if  it  is  very  warm,  and  in 
this  way,  more  moisture  is  given  off  to  the  air  from  the  blood 
passing  through  the  lungs.  Then  again,  the  expired  air  con- 
tains more  moisture  in  summer. 

303.  Perspiration. — The  moisture  which  passes  off  by  the 
skin  is  called  perspii^ation.  This  is  taking  place  constantly 
through  the  pores,  but  in  summer  so  much  passes  off  that  it  col- 
lects in  drops  and  is  then  called  visible  or  sensible  perspiration. 

304.  Ice- water  in  Summer.^There  is  no  objection  to 
ice-water  in  summer  if  you  do  not  drink  too  much,  and  if  you 
take  but  a  little  at  a  time.  Some  people  get  into  the  habit  of 
drinking  ice- water  constantly.  This  is  very  unhealthy  and  will 
make  them  suffer.  But  if  it  be  remembered  to  drink  it  slowly 
and  only  a  little  at  a  time,  it  will  not  usually  do  any  harm. 

305.  Sunstroke. — When  a  person  has  been  in  the  sun  a 
long  time,  the  heat  of  the  blood  may  become  so  great,  or  the 
effect  of  this  heat  upon  the  nerves  so  serious,  that  it  makes  him 
dangerously  sick  ;  this  is  called  sunstroke.  It  is  a  very  danger- 
ous condition.  If  you  have  to  walk  much  in  the  sun,  you 
should  stop  and  go  into  the  shade  and  rest  as  soon  as  you  feel 
the  least  faint  or  dizzj^ 

306.  Effects  of  Cold. — If  we  are  in  the  cold  a  long  time,  it 
sometimes  happens  that  ^we  freeze  the  vase,  ears,  toes,  or  fingers. 
When  this  occurs,  the  frozen  part  of  the  body  becomes  pale  or 
purple.  At  first  it  becomes  painful,  but  when  really  frozen 
it  has  no  feeling  at  all.     The  reason  these  parts  of  the  body 


150  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY,   AND   HYGIENE. 

freeze  is  because  the  blood  does  not  flow  in  them  as  it  should  ; 
there  is  too  little  blood  in  them,  and  so  there  is  too  little  heat 
to  keep  off  the  cold.  When  the  ears  or  the  nose  begin  to 
smart  they  are  beginning  to  feel  the  effects  of  the  cold,  and  we 
should  rub  them  so  as  to  bring  the  blood  back.  When  we  are 
very  cold  and  have  frozen  a  part  of  the  body,  we  should  not  go 
near  the  fire  at  once  ;  the  change  of  temperature  would  be  too 
sudden  and  the  frozen  part  might  die.  We  should  give  the 
frozen  part  a  thorough  rubbing. 


SYNOPSIS. 

Combustion — The  slow  consumption  of  the  tissues  : 

a.  Requires  food  and  oxygen. 

b.  Produces  : 

1.  Life. 

2.  Growth. 

3.  Work  and  heat. 
Refuse  of  the  Body  : 

a.  Gaseous,  given  off  by  : 

1.  Lungs — expiration. 

2.  Skin. 

b.  Liquid,  given  oti'by  kidneys. 

c.  Solid,  given  off  by  intestines. 
Heat  of  Animals  : 

a.  Warm-blooded  animals. 

b.  Cold-blooded  animals. 
Heat  of  the  Human  Body  : 

1.  About  98°  in  health  in  the  interior. 

2.  Colder  on  the  surface  of  the  skin,  depending  upon  the 
warmth  of  the  air.   May  be  slightly  warmer  in  summer. 

3.  Higher  in  sickness  (fever). 

4.  Regulated  by  : 

(L)  Amount  and  kind  of  food. 

(2.)  Amount  and  kind  of  clothing. 

(3.)  Amount  of  exercise. 

(4.)  Persi^iration. 


THE   HEAT    OF   THE   BODY.  151 

To  Keep  Warm  in  Winter  : 

1.  Much  clothing,  especially  woollen  ;  flannel  next  to  skin. 

2.  Much  food,  especially  meat. 

3.  Much  exercise. 

To  Keep  Cool  in  Summer  : 

1.  Light  clothing,  especially  linen. 

2.  Less  food,  and  less  meat. 

3.  Less  exercise. 

The  Control  of  Bodily  Heat  in  Summer — By  increased  escape  of 
moisture  by  lungs  and  by  skin. 

Undesirable  Effects  of  Heat  and  Cold  : 

1.  Sunstroke. 

2.  Freezing  parts. 

3.  Bad  effects  of  too  much  ice-water. 


QrESTIOXS. 

1.  What  effect  has  our  clothing  upon  the  body  heat  ?  2,  In 
what  way  can  the  body  be  compared  to  a  stove  ?  3.  What  corre- 
sponds to  the  fuel  of  the  stove  ?  4.  What  do  we  call  the  slow  burn- 
ing which  takes  place  in  the  body  ?  5.  How  does  fuel  do  work  in 
the  locomotive  ?  6.  What  results  from  the  fuel  in  a  locomotive  be- 
sides the  steam  which  does  the  work  ?  7.  What  results  from  the 
combustion  of  our  food  ?  8.  What  does  the  oxygen  of  the  air  do  ? 
9.  Why  are  the  tissues  constantly  used  up  and  then  restored?  10. 
What  gases  are  given  off  from  the  body?  11.  What  is  the  object  of 
taking  food  into  our  stomach,  and  oxygen  from  the  air  into  our 
blood  ?  12.  What  do  these  produce  ?  13.  Is  the  body  ever  idle  ? 
14.  What  work  does  it  do  even  when  we  are  asleep  ?  15.  Is  the 
body  doing  any  work  when  we  think  ?  16.  Can  a  hard-working  man 
get  along  on  as  little  food  as  one  who  is  idle  ?  17.  Do  all  animals 
have  the  same  warmth  of  the  blood  ?  18.  What  is  meant  by  a  cold- 
blooded animal  ?  19.  Give  an  examjole.  20.  What  is  meant  by  a 
warm-blooded  animal  ?  21.  Give  an  example.  22.  Have  bodies 
without  any  life  in  them  any  heat  of  their  own?  23.  What  is  the 
heat  of  the  human  body  ?  21.  What  is  a  thermometer  ?  25.  Is  our 
skin  warmer  or  cooler  than  the  rest  of  our  body?  26.  What  change 
is  there  in  the  heat  of  the  bodv  when  we  have  fever?     27.  What  do 


152  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY,   AND   HYGIENE. 

we  do  in  summer  so  that  less  bodily  heat  shall  be  produced  ?  28. 
Do  we  need  more  heat  or  less  heat  in  winter  than  in  summer? 
29.  How  do  we  produce  more  heat  in  winter  ?  30.  Do  clothes  pro- 
duce heat?  31.  What  do  they  do  to  the  heat?  32.  What  is  the 
warmest  kind  of  clothing  ?  33.  What  is  the  coolest  kind  of  cloth  - 
ing  ?  34.  What  color  of  cloth  is  the  warmer,  black  or  white  ?  35. 
How  can  you  show  this  ?  36.  What  should  we  do  to  keep  warm  in 
winter  ?  37.  What  should  we  do  to  keep  cool  in  summer  ?  38.  How 
is  the  body  kept  cool  in  summer?  39.  Does  the  blood  become 
warmer  if  we  stand  in  front  of  a  fire  all  day  ?  40.  What  effect  is 
produced  when  moisture  passes  into  the  air?  41,  How  can  you 
show  this  effect  by  an  example  ?  42.  In  what  ways  does  moisture 
leave  the  body  ?  43.  What  is  jDerspiration  ?  44,  How  does  perspira- 
tion keep  the  heat  of  the  body  from  rising  ?  45.  How  can  you  take 
ice-water  in  summer  without  harming  you  ?  46.  What  is  sunstroke  ? 
47.  What  should  you  do  to  avoid  being  sunstruck  ?  48.  What  are 
the  effects  of  great  cold  ?  49.  What  jDarts  of  the  body  are  we  most 
apt  to  freeze  ?  50.  In  what  way  may  certain  parts  of  the  body 
freeze  ?  51.  How  does  the  nose  or  ear  feel  when  it  is  freezing?  52. 
How  do  they  feel  when  they  are  frozen  ?  53.  Should  we  go  near 
the  fire  immediately  when  we  have  frozen  a  part  of  the  body  ?  54o 
What  should  we  do  ? 


CHAPTER  X. 
STIMULANTS. 

307.  Stimulants  are  agents  which  excite  the  human  system  or 
some  ]}art  of  it.  Among  the  most  common  stimulants  are 
coffee,  tea,  and  liquids  containing  alcohol.  Many  drugs  act  as 
stimulants  ;  ammonia  and  camphor  are  good  examples  of  medi- 
cines prescribed  for  this  purpose. 

308.  Drugs  as  Stimulants. — A  stimulant  maybe  iLseful 
in  certain  conditions  of  ill-health,  when  prescribed  by  a  physician. 
Thus  we  are  all  familiar  with  the  practice  of  giving  certain 
medicines  to  strengthen  weakened  parts  of  the  system  ;  we  hear 
frequently  that  a  ''tonic"  has  been  ordered  for  some  invalid  in 
order  to  invigorate  the  body ;  in  another  case  to  increase  the 
action  of  the  organs  of  digestion  ;  and  in  still  another,  to  add 
to  the  power  of  the  heart  when  it  is  weak  in  sickness.  These 
are  examples  of  the  proper  use  of  stimulants. 

309.  Water  and  Food  as  Stimulants.— A  drink  of  cold 
water  is  probably  the  most  common  example  of  the  use  of  a 
stimulant ;  every  one  knows  how  a  person  Avho  feels  faint  may 
become  revived  by  this  simple  means.  Food,  especially  in 
liquid  form,  and  in  such  a  state  that  it  can  be  quickly  digested, 
and  hence  rapidly  taken  up  by  the  blood,  is  an  ideal  form  of 
stimulant;  thus,  a  j)late  of  hot  soup,  or  gruel,  or  a  glass  of 
hot  milk,  acts  very   quickly  and  energetically  in  this  direction. 

310.  Tea  and  Coffee  as  Stimulants. — Tea  and  coffee 
are  stimulants  which,  if  taken  in  moderate  quantity,  by  adults, 
are  not  usually  harmful.  They  act,  in  the  first  place,  by  con- 
veying warmth,  since  they  are  usually  taken  hot ;  secondly,  tea- 


154  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 

leaves  and  coffee-beans  both  contain  a  principle  which  has  a 
Htrengthening  effect  upon  the  heart.  Children  are  better  off  with- 
out the  regular  use  of  tea  and  coffee ;  milk  and  water  are  the 
natural  drinks  for  them.  In  the  case  of  adults,  usually  no  harm 
results  ;  but  when  used  to  excess,  or  too  strong,  tea  and  coffee 
give  rise  to  certain  injurious  eff'ects,  among  which  are  nervous- 
ness, wakefulness  at  night,  and  indigestion. 

311.  How  Stimulants  Act. — Asalready  stated,  stimulants 
excite  the  system  or  some  part  of  it.  Under  ordinary  circum- 
stances, the  body  does  not  require  any  action  of  this  sort ;  and 
frequently,  the  immediate  effect  of  stimulants  of  all  kinds  is  fol- 
lowed by  an  undesirable  condition,  a  reaction,  which  is  the 
opposite  of  stimulation  and  is  known  as  ''depression.^'  If  you 
were  driving  a  pair  of  horses  and  wished  to  cover  the  ground 
more  rapidly,  you  could,  by  using  the  whip,  compel  the  animals 
to  exert  themselves  to  their  utmost ;  but  this  jDace  could  not  be 
kept  up  beyond  a  short  time  ;  after  which  you  would  be  com- 
pelled to  walk  the  horses,  until  they  had  rested.  Again,  if  you 
were  riding  a  bicj'cle,  you  might  cover  many  miles  very  rapidly, 
but  then  3'ou  would  be  compelled  to  slacken  jouy  pace  to  an 
unusually  slow  one,  because  the  extra  exertion  has  exhausted 
you.  Your  increased  speed  would  correspond  to  "  stimulation  ;  " 
the  tired  condition  which  followed  would  be  the  "  depression." 

312.  The  feeling  of  glow  and  well  being  which  should  fol- 
low a  healthy  meal  is  due  to  stimulation,  the  result  of  charging 
the  blood  with  nourishment  ;  this  is  an  example  of  a  healthy 
stimulation  which  is  not  followed  by  the  drawback  of  succeed- 
ing depression.  A  cold  bath,  if  taken  at  the  right  time  and  if 
not  of  too  long  duration,  should  be  followed  by  a  delightful 
feeling  of  warmth  and  strength.  This  also  is  an  example  of  a 
harmless  and  useful  form  of  stimulant. 

313.  Certain  drugs  have  already  been  alluded  to  as  being  \ise- 
ful  stimulants  in  cases  of  sickness,  where  the  system  or  any 
part  of  it  requires  such  assistance.  What  has  just  been  said 
applies  to  stimulants  which  are  generally  harmless  in  their  ac- 


STIMULANTS.  155 

tious.  We  shall  now  cousider  a  stimulant  wbicL,  tliougli 
sometimes  used  as  a  medicine,  is  more  largely  consumed  for 
another  purpose,  and  one  which  is  the  cause  of  more  ill-health, 
unhappiness,  and  crime,  than  any  other  agent  with  which  we 
are  acquainted  ;  this  stimulant  is  alcohol. 


ALCOHOL  AND  ALCOHOLIC  DRINKS. 

314,  Discovery  of  Alcohol. — The  name  alcohol  is  de- 
rived from  the  Arabic,  "  al-kohl,"  meaning  a  powder  to  paint 
the  eye-brows  with  ;  the  derivation  is  not  exactly  clear,  but  it  is 
thought  that  the  name  was  applied  because  alcohol,  under  cer- 
tain circumstances,  gives  to  the  eye  a  brightness  and  depth 
which  was  compared  to  the  effect  produced  when  this  powder 
was  applied  as  a  paint  to  the  eye-brows.  It  is  said  to  have 
been  discovered  about  three  thousand  years  ago.  At  that  time 
chemists  directed  all  their  energies  towards  discovering  two 
things  :  One  was  how  to  change  the  common  metals  into  gold, 
and  the  other  to  discover  a  substance,  an  "elixir  of  life,"  the 
taking  of  which  would  give  eternal  strength  and  life,  and  pre- 
vent death.  Alcohol  was  at  first  believed  to  be  such  an 
"  elixir  of  life  ;  "  but  it  did  not  take  the  ancients  long  to  find 
out,  to  their  sorrow,  that  its  effects  were  exactly  the  opposite. 

315.  Alcoholic  Drinks. — Tbese  are  beverages  luhich  con. 
tain  cdcohoL  It  is  this  ingredient  which  makes  them  intoxicat- 
ing, that  is,  capable  of  making  men  drunk.  They  vary  in  the 
proportion  of  alcohol  which  they  contain  ;  in  general,  we  can  say 
that  the  greater  this  proportion,  the  more  harm  they  do.  Be- 
sides this  difference  in  the  amount  of  alcohol,  there  is  also  a 
variation  in  the  flavor  or  taste  of  each,  deiDending  upon  the 
source  from  which  it  is  derived  or  upon  the  choice  of  flavor 
artificially  added.  Some  are  sweet ;  some  are  devoid  of  sugar ; 
some  are  bitter ;  some  contain  much  coloring  matter  and  are 
dark,  others  are  light  in  color  ;  some  are  sparkling,  because  they 


156  A K ATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND  HYGIENE. 

contain  escaping  gas,  and  others  are  free  from  this  (still); 
some  are  strong  and  others  are  weak.  But  these  are  merely 
variations ;  in  every  case  the  haynn  done  depends  upon  the  exist- 
ence of  alcohol,  and  its  amount ;  they  differ  chiefly  in  the  pro- 
portion of  alcohol  they  contain. 

316.  Non-Alcoholic  Drinks. — These  are  sometimes 
spoken  of  as  ^'  soft  "  or  temperance  drinks.  They  consist  of  water, 
sweetened,  fiamred  in  various  ways,  and  made  sparkling  by  being 
charged  with  an  effervescing  and  escaping  gas.  Such  drinks 
are  harmless,  and  since  they  contain  no  alcohol  are  non-intoxi- 
cating.  Unless  taken  too  cold  or  in  too  large  a  quantity,  they  are 
not  objectionable.  As  examples,  we  may  mention  ginger-ale, 
soda- water,  sarsaparilla,  root-beer,  birch-beer,  and  lemonade. 

317.  Let  us  now  study  what  alcohol  is,  how  it  is  made,  its 
uses  and  abuses,  its  danger,  and  the  great  injury  and  misery 
which  it  causes. 

318.  Properties  of  Alcohol. — ^Alcohol  is  a  clear,  colorless 
liquid,  resembling  water  in  appearance  ;  it  will  mix  ivith  water 
in  any  proportion.  It  is  lighter  than  water.  It  has  a  pleasant 
smell,  but  its  taste  is  hot  and  burning.  If  we  leave  a  little  ex- 
posed in  a  saucer,  we  soon  find  that  it  has  disappeared  into  the 
air,  and  we  say  it  has  "evaporated."  It  takes  fire  easily,  and 
burns  with  a  faint  bluish  flame,  which  gives  very  little  light, 
but  considerable  heat ;  and  all  the  alcohol  is  consumed  without 
any  smoke  or  soot.  Alcohol  is  also  known  as  spirit,  or  sjnrit  of 
wine. 

319.  Uses  of  Alcohol. — Alcohol  is  very  useful  to  us  in  a 
number  of  ways.  The  property  which  it  possesses  of  burning 
without  smoke  and  vet  j^ivin"'  off  heat,  makes  it  valuable  when 
used  in  small  lamps,  which  are  known  as  alcohol-lamps  ;  these 
are  verj-  handy,  and,  occui:>ying  very  little  space,  can  be  carried 
about  and  used  for  heating  water  and  food,  especially  when  we 
wish  to  do  so  rapidly  and  for  a  short  period.  Alcohol  will  mix 
with  or  dissolve  a  great  many  things  which  water  will  not  dis- 
solve.    Oils  and  resins  will  not  mix  with  water,  but  alcohol 


STIMULANTS.  157 

will  dissolve  them ;  by  dissolving  resins  of  various  kinds  in 
alcohol,  varnishes  are  made.  The  druggist  uses  alcohol,  pure 
or  mixed  with  water,  to  dissolve  or  extract  the  active  prin- 
ciples or  valuable  parts  of  various  roots,  barks,  leaves,  seeds,  or 
of  whole  herbs  ;  in  this  way  many  medicines  are  made  which 
are  called  tinctures.  Or,  if  the  alcohol  is  used  to  dissolve  cer- 
tain oils  which  escape  readily  into  the  air,  we  speak  of  the 
medicines  as  essences  or  spii^its. 

320.  Alcohol  has  a  great  fondness  for  water,  and  it  will  take 
it  from  any  substance  with  which  it  comes  in  contact.  On  this 
account  it  has  the  property  of  hardening  animal  tissues  which 
are  placed  in  it ;  it  abstracts  the  water  and  then  the  fleshy 
parts  shrink  and  shrivel  and  become  hard  and  brittle.  At  the 
same  time  it  prevents  them  from  decomposing  and  becoming 
offensive ;  hence,  many  moist  animal  and  vegetable  tissues 
which  it  is  desirable  to  keep  for  future  examination  and  study 
are  j)reserved  in  alcohol. 

321.  Alcohol  will  not  freeze,  no  matter  how  low  the  tempera- 
ture ;  hence,  it  is  used  to  fill  the  tubes  of  thermometers  which 
are  to  be  used  in  very  cold  countries,  or  to  register  very  low 
temperatures.  When  used  for  this  purpose,  it  is  usually  col- 
ored red,  so  that  it  can  be  more  readily  seen,  since,  as  has  been 
stated,  in  the  pure  state  it  is  colorless.  Ordinary  thermometers 
contain  mercury  ;  but  this  becomes  solid  when  exposed  to  great 
cold,  and  consequently  useless  under  this  condition. 

322.  How  Alcohol  is  Made. — Alcohol  is  derived  exclu- 
sively  from  the  vegetable  world,  and  yet,  during  the  life  of  plants, 
no  alcohol  can  be  detected.  It  is  formed  from  the  starch  and 
sugar  which  the  vegetable  Avorld  produces,  but  not  so  long  as 
the  parts  of  the  plant  are  in  a  natural  condition.  The  sap  of 
the  sugar-cane  is  rich  in  sugar,  but,  while  rooted  in  the  ground 
and  living,  no  alcohol  is  formed  ;  it  is  only  when  cut  and 
crushed  that  alcohol  makes  its  appearance.  In  the  same  man- 
ner, grain  and  vegetables  contain  much  starch  ;  but  so  long  as 
the  outside  covering  remains  intact,  no  alcohol  forms.    Alcohol 


158  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 

is  a  2^'^oduct  of  decomposition,  and  does  not  exist  as  such  in 
nature. 

323.  Fermentation. — The  process  bj  which  starch  and 
sugar  are  changed  into  alcohol  is  an  example  of  what  is  known 
?i^  fermentation.  Sugar  can  be  converted  directly  into  alcohol ; 
but  starch  must  first  become  sugar  before  fermentation  will 
change  it  into  alcohol.  If  we  take  anything  containing  starch, 
whether  it  be  grain — wheat,  rye,  corn,  etc. — or  certain  vege- 
tables (potatoes),  crush  the  mass,  mix  with  ivater,  and  keep  in 
a  ivarni  place,  we  soon  find  that  the  starch  in  these  substances 
has  changed  into  sugar ;  this  is  the  first  step  in  the  process  of 
fermentation.  If  this  same  mixture  is  allowed  to  stand  a  little 
longer  under  the  same  conditions  of  moisture  and  warmth,  the 
next  change  is  the  conversion  of  the  sugar  into  alcohol.  If, 
instead  of  starting  with  starch  and  first  converting  it  into 
sugar,  we  begin  with  a  sugary  mass,  alcohol  will  result  more 
quickly. 

324.  Changes  Produced  by  Fermentation. — While  the 
sugar  is  being  converted  into  alcohol,  little  bubbles  ofgasivlll  be 
seen  escaping  into  the  air,  and  the  liquid  is  said  to  be  working, 
or  fermenting.  At  the  same  time  it  is  losing  its  sweet  taste.  If 
any  one  has  noticed  fresh  cider  losing  its  sweetness  and  becom- 
ing what  is  called  "hard,"  he  will  have  noticed  that  bubbles  of 
gas  continue  to  escape  until  there  is  no  sweetness  left ;  this  is 
an  example  of  fermentation.  After  a  time  the  cider  will  no 
longer  be  sweet,  and  it  will  have  acquired  the  taste  of  alcohol. 

325.  Starch  and  Sugar  are  Converted  into  Alcohol 
and  Carbonic-Acid  Gas. — It  has  just  been  stated  that  the 
starch  has  first  been  changed  into  sugar,  and  then  the  sugar 
into  alcohol.  The  alcohol  remains  in  the  liquid,  while  the  gas, 
which  is  poisonous,  escapes  into  the  air.  Two  jwisons  have 
taken  the  place  of  the  starch  or  sugar  which  existed  before. 
The  gas,  known  as  carbo?iic-acld  gas,  is  the  same  poisonous 
substance  which  is  given  off  by  the  lungs  in  the  expired  breath, 
and  the  same  which  frequently  collects  in  damp  cellars  and  in 


STIMULANTS.  159 

old  wells.  The  process  which  changes  sugar  and  starch  into 
alcojiol  is  but  one  form  of  fermentation,  and  is  brought  about 
by  the  growth  of  minute  livi?ig  bodies  which  are  always  present 
ill  the  air,  and  consequently  soon  fall  into  any  liquid  which 
is  exposed. 

326.  Minute  Living  Bodies  in  the  Air— Germs.— As 
we  shall  see  later  on,  there  are  many  different  kinds  of  fermen- 
tation, the  process  of  changing  starch  and  sugar  into  alcohol 
being  merely  one  of  them.  The  kind  of  fermentation  which 
takes  place  depends  upon  the  particular  form  of  these  minute 
living  bodies  that  enters  the  liquid  and  grows  in  it.  Millions 
of  them  are  always  present  in  the  air.  They  are  so  minute, 
that  it  is  only  when  a  number  of  them  are  examined  together, 
with  a  very  strong  microscope,  that  they  can  be  studied.  In 
many  cases  it  is  not  certain  whether  they  belong  to  plard  or  to 
animal  life.  Some  give  rise  to  fermentation,  others  cause  liquids 
to  become  mouldy,  to  rot,  or  putrefy,  and  still  others  are  respon- 
sible for  all  the  contagious  diseases,  such  as  diphtheria,  scarlet 
fever,  measles,  small-pox,  etc.  In  every  case  these  germs,  as 
they  are  called,  grow  and  multiply  with  enormous  rapidity, 
and  in  doing  so  they  produce  fermentation,  putrefaction,  or 
contagious  diseases. 

327.  The  Yeast-Plant. — In  the  case  of  that  particular 
kind  of  fermentation  which  we  are  discussing,  the  minute  body 
which  causes  it  is  known  as  the  yeast-ijlant.  It  is  of  vegetable 
origin  and  grows  very  rapidly  when  it  finds  a  soil  particularly 
adapted  to  it ;  such  a  favorable  soil  is  a  starchy  or  sugary 
liquid.  Each  cell  grows  rapidly  and  then  divides,  forming  two 
cells  ;  in  this  manner  it  soon  vastly  increases  its  bulk.  In 
changing  starchy  or  sugary  solutions  into  alcoholic  liquids,  it 
is  often  more  convenient  and  hastens  the  process  to  add  a  little 
yeast,  than  to  take  the  chances  that  some  of  its  germs  will  fall 
in  from  the  air.  So  much  yeast  forms  when  beer  is  made,  that 
the  surplus  is  sold  in  large  quantities  by  brewers.  Yeast  has 
one  very  important  and  familiar  use  in  the  making  of  bread. 


160 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 


328.  Fermentation  in  Bread. — Flour  from  which  bread 
is  made  consists  largely  of  starch ;  it  is  grain  which  has  been 
finely  pulverized.  Wheat  is  used  most  frequentlj"  in  America 
for  bread  ;  but  in  some  countries  the  flour  is  made  from  rye. 
The  baker  adds  water  and  a  little  salt  to  the  flour,  kneads  this 
mixture  and  makes  the  doxigh  ;  a  little  yeast  is  added  to  make 
the  dough  rise^  so  that  the  bread  will  be  light  and  digestible. 


Fig.  73.— Yeast  Cells,  Showing  Stages  in  Division  of  the  same  Cell. 

The  dough  is  placed  in  a  warm  place,  which  favors  the  action 
of  the  yeast.  The  result  is  that  a  small  part  of  the  starch  be- 
comes changed  into  sugar  and  this  again  into  alcohol ;  ac- 
companying this  process,  carbonic-acid  gas  is  also  necessarily 
given  off.  This  gas  escapes  in  bubbles,  but  cannot  get  through 
the  dough  ;  in  trying  to  work  its  way  out,  however,  it  jyyffs  out 
the  dough,  making  a  number  of  little  spaces,  and  thus  causes 
the  bread  to  become  light  and  porous.  In  this  condition,  the 
dough  is  put  into  the  oven  and  baked,  a  crust  forming  on  the 
outside.  The  small  amount  of  alcohol  and  carbonic-acid  gas 
which  has  been  formed  is  driven  off  by  the  heat. 


STIMULANTS.  161 

329.  Requisites  for  Fermentation. — In  every  form    of 

fermentation  four  conditions  are  necessary :  heat,  moisture, 
peculiar  ferment,  such  as  yeast,  and  some  nutritious  matter  to 
serve  as  food  for  the  ferment.  The  heat  must  be  moderate ; 
high  degrees  of  heat  will  prevent  fermentation.  This  fact  is 
made  nse  of  in  preserving  fruit  and  vegetables.  In  canning 
goods,  for  instance,  the  filled  cans  are  subjected  to  a  boiling 
temperature  to  kill  any  ferment  present,  and  are  then  sealed 
to  keep  out  the  air  and  thus  prevent  other  minute  living  germs 
from  entering.  In  this  state  nearly  all  kinds  of  food  may  be 
kept  almost  indefinitely.  On  the  other  hand,  under  a  very  low 
temperature,  fermentation  and  similar  jDrocesses  will  not  take 
place  ;  hence,  we  make  use  of  refrigerators  to  keep  edibles 
from  spoiling.  Fermentation  in  any  substance  can  also  be  pre- 
vented b}'  driving  out  all  the  moisture  in  it  ;  hence,  dried  (de- 
siccated) food  will  keep  for  a  long  time. 

330.  Acetous  and  Alcoholic  Fermentation. — The 
most  important  kinds  of  fermentation  are  acetous,  forming  vine- 
gar, and  vinous  or  cdcohoUc.  forming  alcohol.  The  process  of 
alcoholic  fermentation  has  already  been  exjDlained. 

331.  Acetous  Fermentation. — By  this  we  mean  the 
change  of  any  alcoholic  liquid  into  vinegar.  If  fresh  fruit-juice 
is  exposed  to  the  air,  bubbles  are  noticed  to  rise  and  escape  ; 
soon  the  juice  loses  its  sweetness  and  becomes  "  hard  ; "  it  is 
now  intoxicating,  because  it  contains  alcohol.  If  it  is  still 
further  exposed  to  the  air  in  a  warm  spot,  another  change  takes 
place  ;  the  alcohol  changes  into  acetic  acid,  and  becomes  vine- 
gar, which,  as  is  well  known,  is  very  sour.  This  is  an  example 
of  acetous  fermentation.  Various  fruit-juices  are  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  vinegar,  mostly,  however,  those  from  apples 
(cider)  and  from  grapes  (wine). 

332.  Alcoholic  Fermentation. — As  already  explained, 
the  3^east-plant  is  the  jDarticular  kind  of  living  germ  w^hich 
changes  starch  into  sugar  and  then  into  alcohol.  Such  germs 
are  constantly  present  in  the  air,  but  we  cannot  rely    upon 


162 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 


them  for  definite  results  ;  on  tliis  account  it  is  more  satisfactory 
to  add  yeast  to  the  fluid  which  we  wish  to  subject  to  alcohohc 
fermentation. 

333.  Sometimes  a  sugar}'  liquid  is  used,  such  as  the  juice  of 
grapes,  from  which  wine  is  made,  or  molasses  from  which  i^um 
is  made ;  in  which  cases  it  is  not  necessary  to  convert  the  starch 
into  sugar,  for  sugar  is  already  present. 

334.  If  the  preparation  is  to  be  an  alcoholic  drink,  it  requires 


Fig   Ti  —.Still  for  Making  Alcoliolic  Li(iiii))-. 

clearing,  flavoring,  and  sometimes  coloring.  In  the  case  of 
wine,  beer,  ale,  porter,  stout,  or  cider,  this  clearing  is  done  by 
allowing  the  liquid  to  stand,  pouring  off  the  clear  part  and 
straining.  The  stronger  drinks,  known  as  distilled  fipirits  or 
liquors,  such  as  brand}^  whiskey,  rum,  gin,  and  the  like,  are 
prepared  by  a  process  called  distillation. 

335.  Distillation. — This  is  the  process  by  which  a  fluid 
is  changed  into  vaj^or  by  heat,  and  is  then  condensed  and  col- 
lected in  the  form  of  a   liquid   again.     In  the  preparation  of 


STIMULANTS.  163 

alcoholic  liquors,  various  grains  or  other  starchy  or  sugary  sub- 
stances are  mixed  with  water  and  allowed  to  ferment ;  this 
mass  is  placed  in  a  large  copper  vessel  and  heated.  The  heat 
drives  off  the  alcohol  together  with  a  certain  amount  of  water 
in  the  form  of  vapor,  which  passes  through  a  long  pipe  from 
the  top  of  the  still,  and  by  the  application  of  cold  is  condensed 
into  liquid  again.  Tliis  liquid  flowing  from  the  further  end  of 
the  pipe  (worm)  constitutes  alcohol  or  distilled  sj^irits. 

386.  If  one  breathes  upon  a  pane  of  glass  in  winter,  moisture 
will  collect ;  this  moisture  is  contained  in  the  expired  air  and 
is  condensed  by  the  coldness  of  the  window-pane.  Dew  is  the 
condensed  moisture  which  existed  previously  in  the  air  as  in- 
visible vapor ;  the  cold  earth  causes  it  to  change  from  vapor 
to  liquid  form. 

337.  Alcohol  has  such  a  strong  liking  for  water,  that  it  carries 
a  considerable  quantity  with  it  in  the  process  of  distillation. 
If  pure  alcohol  is  wanted,  distillation  must  be  repeated  several 
times ;  each  time  the  alcohol  becomes  stronger  and  loss  water 
is  mixed  with  it.  But  the  union  between  the  two  is  so  great, 
that  it  is  difficult  to  obtain  alcohol  absolutely  free  from  water  ; 
to  manufacture  such  alcohol,  it  is  necessary  to  add  a  substance 
which  has  even  greater  affinity  for  water,  before  the  final  dis- 
tillation ;  quick-lime  is  commonly  employed  for  this  purpose. 

338.  Varieties  of  Alcoholic  Drinks. — All  alcoholic  drinks 
are  intoxicating  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  alcohol  which 
they  contain.  They  are  watery  solutions,  containing  alcohol 
in  various  proportions  (from  one  twenty-fifth  to  one-half  of 
their  bulk)  ;  each  possesses  its  own  flavor  and  color.  They  can 
be  divided  into  five  classes  : 

1.  Malt  Liquors — ^Beers. 

2.  Cider. 

3.  Wines. 

4.  Distilled  Spirits — Liquors, 

5.  Cordials, 


164  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 

339.  Malt  Liquors  and  Cider. — Beers,  including  ale, 
porter,  and  stout,  contain  from  four  to  eiglit  per  cent,  of  alcohol  ; 
cider  has  a  similar  amount. 

340.  Malt  Liquors— Beer,  Ale,  Porter,  and  Stout. — 
Beer  is  made  from  barley.  The  barley  grains  are  moistened 
and  kept  in  a  warm  place  until  they  sprout,  that  is,  until  the 
root  and  the  stem  begin  to  form  ;  the  object  of  this  is  to 
change  the  starch  of  the  grain  into  sugar.  As  soon  as  sprout- 
ing commences,  the  barley  is  placed  into  an  oven  and  heated 
so  as  to  stop  its  growth.  This  forms  malt.  The  malt  is 
crushed,  mixed  with  hot  water,  and  the  mass  allowed  to  stand. 
In  this  way  the  sugar,  salts,  and  the  nutritious  portions  of  the 
malt  are  extracted  or  dissolved  ;  this  dark  liquid  is  called  wort. 
This  is  strained,  and,  after  hop)S  are  added  to  give  it  the  pe- 
culiar flavor  of  beer  and  at  the  same  time  a  slightly  bitter 
taste,  it  is  boiled.  Then  it  is  drawn  off,  cooled  to  the  ordinary 
temperature  of  the  room  by  being  surrounded  by  large  quan- 
tities of  ice,  mixed  ivith  yeast,  and  allowed  to  ferment.  After 
fermentation  has  proceeded  to  a  certain  point,  the  yeast  is 
separated  and  the  clear  effervescent  fluid  is  drawn  into  casks  ; 
this  is  beer. 

341.  Ale,  Porter,  and  Stout. — These  are  made  in  a  sim- 
ilar manner.  The  dark  brown  color  of  porter  and  stout  is 
produced  by  adding  a  quantity  of  changed  malt. 

342.  Cider. — This  is  the  fermented  juice  of  apples.  The 
fruit  is  crushed  and  the  juice  collected.  At  first  it  is  sweet  and 
contains  no  alcohol  ;  but  it  soon  ferments  and,  its  sugar  becom- 
ing changed  to  alcohol,  it  becomes  less  sweet  (hard).  After  a 
while,  unless  protected  from  the  air  and  heat,  it  undergoes 
further  change,  becomes  sour,  and  forms  vinegar. 

343.  Wines. — Wines  usually  contain  from  nine  to  twenty 
per  cent,  of  alcohol.  They  are  made  from  grapes.  The  juice  is 
expressed  and  set  aside  in  large  vats.  If  there  be  much  sugar, 
part  of  it  remains  unchanged,  since  fermentation  ceases  as  soon 
as  about  seventeen  per  cent,  of  alcohol  is  present  ;  in  such 


STIMULANTS.  165 

cases  the  wine  is  sweet  and  is  known  as  a  sweet  wine  ;  many  of 
the  Itahan  and  Spanish  wines  are  of  this  character  ;  as  will  be 
understood  from  what  has  just  been  said,  they  contain  a  large 
percentage  of  alcohol.  In  other  wines,  nearly  if  not  quite  all 
the  sugar  becomes  changed  into  alcohol ;  the  wine  loses  its 
sweetness  and  is  then  known  as  a  dr^y  wine. 

344.  Bed  luines  derive  their  color  from  the  color  of  the 
skin  of  the  grapes  used.  Some  wines  contain  considerable  gas 
which  causes  the  cork  to  pop  when  the  bottle  is  opened ;  these 
effervescent  wines,  such  as  champagne,  are  bottled  before  fer- 
mentation is  completed.  Some  wines,  especially  sweet  wines, 
have  alcohol  added  to  them  to  keep  them  from  spoiling ;  this 
increases,  of  course,  their  intoxicating  power. 

345.  Home-Made  Wines. — A  great  deal  of  ignorance  is 
displayed  on  the  subject  of  home-made  wines.  Many  people 
believe  that  because  they  have  manufactured  such  wines  them- 
selves, they  must  be  harmless  and  innocent.  Elderberry  wine, 
currant  wine,  gooseberry  wine,  and  other  home-made  wines  are 
just  as  injurious  as  those  made  from  the  grape.  They  contain 
just  as  large  a  percentage  of  alcohol  as  many  of  the  wines 
made  fi^om  grapes  ;  and  this  being  the  case,  they  are  just  as 
harmful.  It  is  the  alcohol  which  constitutes  the  injurious  por- 
tion of  wines  and  of  all  other  forms  of  intoxicating  drinks. 

346.  Distilled  Spirits — Liquors. — Liquors  contain  about 
one-half  alcohol ;  they  are  the  most  intoxicating  and  the  most 
dangerous  of  all  alcoholic  drinks.  The  proportion  of  alcohol  is 
about  the  same  in  all  of  them  ;  the  only  difference  in  the  va- 
rious kinds  is  in  the  flavor.  This  depends  either  upon  the 
variety  of  grain  or  other  substance  used  in  the  manufacture,  or 
upon  whatever  flavoring  agent  is  added  afterward.  Wliiskey 
is  made  from  corn  or  rye,  and  very  cheap  forms  from  potatoes. 
Brandy  is  made  from  grapes  and  other  fruit.  Rum  is  distilled 
from  molasses.  Gin  is  flavored  with  juniper  berries,  and  ab- 
sinthe with  wormwood.  A  liquor  distilled  from  rice  is  called 
arrack. 


166  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 

347.  Cordials. — These  are  clea7\  sweetened  liquids,  variously 
colored,  contaiinng  about  one-third  alcohol  and  fiavored  with 
different  aromatic  and  jDungent  oils,  such  as  pepi^ermint,  anise, 
fennel,  orange,  etc.  They  are  known  by  fancy  French  names, 
which  refer  to  the  flavor  or  to  the  place  where  they  were  sup- 
posed to  have  been  first  manufactured.  Some  of  them  are 
distilled  liquors  to  which  considerable  sugar  has  been  added. 
Most  of  them  are  made  artificially  by  mixing  one  part  of  al- 
cohol and  two  parts  of  water,  and  then  coloring  and  flavoring 
to  suit. 

348.  Many  of  the  much-advertised  hitters,  tonics,  elixirs,  and 
other  patent  medicines  contain  large  amounts  of  alcohol.  They 
are  not  only  capable  of  doing  great  injury,  but  are  deceptive, 
and  thus  often  establish  the  craving  for  alcoholic  drink  in  per- 
sons who  were  ignorant  that  they  were  taking  what  practically 
ojnounts  to  liquor. 

349.  A  great  many  wines,  liquors,  and  cordials  are  made  ai^ti- 
ficially.  Alcohol  and  water  are  mixed  in  various  proportions, 
more  or  less  sugar  added,  then  the  peculiar  flavor  adapted  to 
each  variety,  and  finally  a  suSicient  amount  of  coloring  matter. 
Many  of  the  substances  added  in  the  artificial  manufacture  of 
alcoholic  drinks  are  of  a  very  injurious  and  poisonous  character  ; 
thus  other  poisons  are  added  to  the  alcohol. 

350.  General  Effects  of  Alcohol  and  Alcoholic 
Drinks. — Having  studied  what  alcohol  is,  its  properties,  how 
alcoholic  drinks  are  manufactured,  and  the  different  varieties, 
we  will  now  consider  the  effects  of  alcohol.  Alcohol  in  various 
forms  is  often  prescribed  by  the  physician  for  use  as  a  medicine  ; 
most  doctors,  however,  realize  how  much  responsibility  at- 
taches to  their  recommendation  of  liquids  containing  alcohol 
even  for  this  purpose  ;  for  the  alcohol  habit  is  begun  in  many 
by  the  well-meant  directions  of  the  medical  adviser.  In  certain 
fevers  and  wasting  diseases,  alcoholic  drinks  are  prescribed  not 
only  as  stimulants  but  as  food.  But  because  it  may  act  as  a 
food  under  such  conditions,  we  are  not  justified  in  assuming 


STIMULANTS.  167 

that  it  can  be  used  as  a  food  at  all  times,  for  oi^dinarlly  it  does 
not  act  as  a  food.  It  is  intoxicating,  and  the  very  meaning  of 
the  word,  which  is  derived  from  the  Latin  signifying  arrow- 
poison,  indicates  its  nature. 

351.  It  may  be  argued  that  many  people  are  in  the  habit  of 
using  moderate  amounts  of  alcoholic  drinks  without  an}-  appar- 
ent injury  ;  but  the  same  can  be  said  of  every  other  poisonous 
substance.  No  one  will  deny  that  the  world  icould  he  infinitely 
better  off  if  there  loas  no  such  thing  as  alcoholic  drinh,  or  even 
alcohol  itself.  Some  other  substance  would  undoubtedly  be 
found  to  take  its  place.  If  a  prison  be  visited,  and  the  convicts 
be  asked  about  the  crimes  which  brought  them  there,  it  is  as- 
tonishing how  many  of  them  will  ascribe  their  downfall  to 
drink.  Many  a  man,  who  would  otherwise  have  been  a  good 
and  useful  citizen,  has  been  made  a  criminal  by  this  poison.  It 
may  safely  be  said  that  there  is  no  cause  of  crime  so  great  and 
widesjwead  as  drink. 

352.  Alcohol  as  a  Medicine. — Just  as  other  poisons  may 
be  of  valne,  when  taken  in  j)roper  dose  and  under  the  directions 
of  a  physician,  so  alcohol  may  have  its  use  as  a  medicine.  In  cer- 
tain wasting  diseases  and  iveakening fevers,  some  doctors  employ 
alcoholic  drinks  as  stimulants  and  as  food'.  But  even  this  use 
is  becoming  less  and  less  ;  medical  men  are  prescribing  alcohol 
for  this  purpose  very  much  less  than  thej'  did  formerl3^  Other 
drugs  are  being  given  for  purposes  for  which  alcohol  seemed 
valuable  ;  and  these  frequently  act  as  satisfactory  substitutes 
for  alcohol  when  prescribed  as  a  stimulant ;  and  liquid  foods  in 
a  form  so  as  to  be  easily  digested  are  now  often  given  in  fevers 
and  wasting  diseases,  where  formerly  alcohol  was  considered 
advisable. 

353.  The  danger  of  creating  the  alcohol  habit,  the  craving 
for  alcoholic  drink,  is  so  great,  that  an  attempt  has  been  made 
in  certain  hospitals  to  do  away  with  this  risk  in  ca&e  the  physi- 
cian thinks  it  advisable  to  prescribe  alcohol.  The  plan,  having 
this  object  in  view,  has  been  to  prescribe  a  mixture  of  equal 


168  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 

parts  of  alcohol  and  water  in  place  of  brandy  or  whiskey.  Since 
these  liquors  contain  about  one-half  alcohol,  the  effect  upon  the 
system  is  the  same.  But  since  the  peculiar  flavor  of  the  brandy 
or  whiskey  is  absent,  the  patient  is  in  ignorance  of  what  is 
given  as  a  medicine,  and  will  be  much  less  likely  to  acquire  the 
alcohol  habit.  For,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  very  few  drinkers  would 
care  to  take  plain  alcohol  and  water ;  it  is  the  flavoring,  sweet- 
ening, and  peculiar  taste  of  the  liquor  which  tempts  them. 

354.  Alcohol  is  not  ordinarily  a  Food. — The  various 
alcoholic  drinks  contai?i  no  nutritious  matter  at  all  excepting 
beer,  ale,  porter,  and  stout,  and  these  contain  such  a  small 
proportion  that  we  would  be  compelled  to  take  a  very  large 
quantity  to  obtain  a  comparatively  small  amount  of  nourishing 
material.  If  we  did  this,  we  would  necessarily  have  to  drink  a 
considerable  amount  of  alcohol  ;  hence,  whatever  value  they 
might  have  on  account  of  a  small  proportion  of  nourishment, 
is  neutralized  and  overshadowed  by  the  injurious  results  of  the 
alcohol.  There  are  man}^  authorities  who  never  prescribe  it 
in  any  form  and  under  any  circumstances,  and  they  claim  to  be 
able  to  produce  the  same  i^esults  with  other  agents  and  to  have 
just  as  much  success  as  those  who  prescribe  alcohol.  One  glass 
of  milk,  one  plate  of  gruel,  one  slice  of  roast  beef,  or  one  cup  of 
broth  contains  more  nutrition  than  many  glasses  of  beer,  ale, 
stout,  or  porter.  There  can  be  no  excuse  therefore  for  the 
consumption  of  alcoholic  drinks  on  the  plea  of  being  nourish- 
ing or  wholesome.  We  can  safely  say  that  ordinarily  alcohol 
does  not  act  as  a  food. 

355.  Effects  of  Alcohol  upon  the  Tissues  and  Func- 
tions of  the  Body. — Alcohol  and  alcoholic  drinks  have  the 
following  effects  upon  the  tissues  of  the  body : 

356.  Effects  of  Alcohol  upon  the  Stomach.— If  we 
moisten  a  portion  of  the  skin  with  alcohol,  cover  this  part  with 
a  glass  so  that  the  alcohol  cannot  escape  into  the  air,  and  repeat 
this  operation  several  times,  we  will  find  that  the  moistened 
spot  has  become  inflamed  and  reddened.     If  this  effect  can  be 


STIMULANTS.  169 

produced  upon  the  skin  which  is  adapted  to  irritation  of  all 
sorts,  we  can  imagine  how  much  greater  is  the  effect  of  alcohol 
upon  the  delicate  lining  of  the  stomach.  It  irritates  this  lining 
and  reddens  it.  •  The  small  blood-vessels  in  the  wall  of  the 
stomach  remain  over-filled  with  blood.  Just  as  alcohol  tough- 
ens tissues  which  are  placed  in  it,  so  the  walls  of  the  stomach 
become  hardened  after  a  time  ;  when  this  takes  place,  the  glands 
of  digestion  become  changed.  The  stomach  is  then  no  longer 
projjerly  suited  for  its  work,  that  of  digestion. 

357.  When  a  large  quantity  of  alcoholic  drink  is  added  to  the 
food  in  the  stomach  it  prevents  it  from  being  digested  ;  it  takes 
to  itself  the  pepsin  in  the  gastric  juice,  and  without  this  the 
digestive  fluid  becomes  useless,  since  it  is  the  pepsin  in  solution 
which  digests  the  food  in  the  stomach.  When  alcoholic  drink 
causes  nausea  and  vomiting,  the  vomited  material  will  have  the 
same  form  as  when  swallowed,  showing  that  alcohol  interfered 
with  its  digestion.  This  vomiting  often  takes  place  in  the 
morning  just  after  rising  ;  sometimes  there  is  blood  mixed  with 
the  fluid  expelled  from  the  stomach.  The  drinking  man  fre- 
quently attempts  to  control  these  symptoms  by  taking  some 
strong  liquor  before  breakfast.  Topers  suffer  constantly  from 
d}/spepsla  and  the  many  annoying  and  serious  results  which 
follow  it. 

358.  Effects  of  Alcohol  upon  the  Intestines. — Alcohol 
has  the  same  irritating  effects  upon  the  intestines  as  it  has  upon 
the  stomach.  It  reddens  this  part  of  the  digestive  tract,  irri- 
tates it,  and  after  a  time  makes  it  tough  and  unsuited  for  its 
particular  w^ork.  Since  part  of  digestion  (especially  that  of 
starchy  and  fatty  food)  is  carried  on  in  the  uj)per  part  of  the 
small  intestine,  this  function  is  very  much  interfered  with  as 
one  of  the  effects  of  alcohol. 

359.  Effects  of  Alcohol  upon  the  Liver. — While  a  small 
part  of  the  alcohol  taken  in  the  form  of  alcoholic  drink  is 
changed  and  consumed  in  the  stomach  and  blood,  the  greater 
part  circulates  in  the  blood-vessels  as  alcohol ;  in  this  way  it  irri- 


170  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 

tales  every  organ  with  which  it  comes  in  contact.  This  irrita- 
tion shows  itself  especially  in  the  live7\  This  organ  has  an 
enormous  quantity  of  blood  passing  through  it  ;  its  function  is 
to  jDurify  this  blood,  to  add  a  certain  nourishing  substance  to 
it,  and  to  make  the  bile.  When  irritated  by  alcohol  in  the 
blood,  the  liver  becomes  enlarged  and  choked  np  ;  it  no  longer 
purities  the  blood  by  removing  those  poisonous  materials  which 
it  separates  in  health. 

360.  As  a  result  of  this  constant  irritation  new  tissue  is  added 
to  the  liver.  This  new  material  is  not  composed  of  liver-cells, 
but  of  a  form  of  tissue  which  is  not  only  useless  but  very  harm- 
ful;  it  encroaches  upon  and  destroys  many  of  the  cells  and 
thus  interferes  with  the  work  of  the  liver.  After  a  time,  the 
new  tissue  s]i7'inks  and  as  a  result  the  liver  becomes  much  smaller 
and  more  solid  than  in  health  ;  in  shrinking,  it  compresses  the 
veins  and  the  small  vessels  through  which  the  bile  flows,  and 
does  much  damage  in  this  way.  Such  a  liver  is  frequently  only 
half  as  large  as  in  health.  Although  this  condition  may  be  due 
to  other  causes,  the  great  majority  of  cases  are  the  result  of 
alcoholic  drink.  It  is  called  '■'gin-drinker's  liver"  or  ''hob- 
nailed liver,"  because  the  surface  of  such  diseased  livers  is  cov- 
ered with  little  lumps  resembling  the  head  of  a  hob-nail. 

361.  Effects  of  Alcohol  upon  the  Muscles.— Alcohol 
has  a  very  injurious  effect  upon  muscular  tissue  ;  it  acts  as  a 
poison  upon  the  development  of  muscle,  and  changes  it  into  fat. 
When  a  muscle  contains  much  fat,  it  becomes  soft,  'weak,  and 
useless.  It  should  be  the  constant  aim  to  keep  the  muscles  in  good 
condition  so  that  they  shall  be  strong,  hard,  and  prominent ;  the 
body  which  has  muscles  of  this  sort  is  said  to  be  well  developed. 
The  use  of  alcoholic  drink  interferes  with  this  development. 
Look  at  the  drunkard  and  see  how  weak  and  flabby  his  muscles 
are  ;  he  may  look  big,  but  this  is  due  to  fat  and  not  to  well- 
developed  muscular  tissue.  Though  he  looks  large,  he  is  bloated 
and  puffed  up  ;  is  really  weak  and  tires  easily. 

362.  Effects  of  Alcohol  upon  the  Bones.— If  alcoholic 


STIMULANTS.  171 

tlriDk  be  indulged  in  in  youth  and  before  the  skeleton  has  be- 
come fully  formed,  it  m^y  prevent  it  from  reaching  its  natural  size. 
The  bones  of  drunkards  break  more  easily  than  do  those  of  others. 
After  an  accident — and  intoxication  frequently  results  in  such 
injury — if  a  fracture  has  taken  place,  the  broken  ends  of  the 
fractured  bone  or  bones  ivill  not  iinile  as  quickly  or  as  nicely  as 
they  do  in  temperate  j^ersons. 

363.  Effects  of  Alcohol  upon  the  Heart. — Alcohol  e^-- 
cites  the  heart  and  causes  it  to  act  too  rapidly.  When  too  great 
a  demand  is  made  upon  any  organ  it  cannot  act  properly,  and 
after  a  time  permanent  changes  take  place,  which  interfere  with 
its  function.  As  a  result  of  the  use  of  alcohol  the  Jieart  increases 
in  size.  It  would  seem  as  though  this  ought  to  be  an  advan- 
tage ;  but  as  a  matter  of  fact  it  is  just  the  opposite.  Any  organ 
which  differs  in  size  from  the  healthy  one,  must  suffer  in  its 
work.  The  heart  which  has  become  too  large  as  a  result  of  the 
irritating  effects  of  alcohol,  does  its  ivork  pooi^ly.  It  acts  imper- 
fectly or  irregularly,  sometimes  too  rapidly,  sometimes  too 
slowly. 

364.  Since  alcohol  changes  muscle  tissue  into  fat,  and  since 
the  heart  is  formed  of  this  kind  of  tissue,  the  use  of  alcohol 
soon  converts  considerable  of  the  heart  tissue  into  fat.  This 
change  naturally  iveakens  the  heart  and  it  cannot  beat  so 
strongly  as  it  should.  As  a  result  the  blood  is  no  longer 
pumped  into  the  arteries  j^roperl}^  and  the  entire  body  suffers. 
Parts  receive  too  little  blood  and  as  a  consequence  become  jyale 
arid  thin.  Sometimes  when  there  is  much  fat  mixed  with  the 
muscle  of  the  heart,  its  walls  become  extremely  weak  and  as  a 
result  the  heart  may  burst;  then  instant  death  ensues.  The 
heart  is  often  weakened  so  much,  as  a  result  of  poisoning  from 
alcohol,  that  death  ensues,  because  this  organ  has  become  too 
weak  and  gives  out — a  condition  known  as  hear^t  failure. 

365.  Effects  of  Alcohol  upon  the  Blood-vessels. — The 
walls  of  the  blood-vessels  become  changed  as  the  result  of  alco- 
holic drink  ;  they  lose  their  elasticity  and  become  dilated,  stiff, 


172  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 

and  hrittle.  In  this  condition  the  blood-vessel  is  liable  to  hurst. 
When  this  change  takes  place  in  the  arteries  of  the  brain,  as 
often  happens,  and  one  bursts,  the  accident  is  known  as  apo- 
plexy. It  is  a  very  serious  result  and  may  lead  to  paralysis  ;  it 
often  causes  the  person  afflicted  to  become  unconscious  and 
frequently  results  in  sudden  death.  Apoplexy  may  occur  in 
tliose  who  are  not  drunkards,  but  it  does  often  occur  in  persons 
who  indulge  in  large  quantities  of  alcoholic  drink. 

366.  The  blood-vessels  of  the  skin  dilate  as  an  effect  of 
alcohol,  and  then  hold  more  blood  than  ordinarily.  This  ex- 
plains the  Jlushed  face  which  some  people  have  after  drinking 
alcoholics.  It  explains  also  why  there  is  a  tem-poravy  feeling  of 
warmth  which  deceives  one  into  believing  that  alcohol  increases 
the  heat  of  the  body.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  alcohol  has  just  the 
opposite  effect.  Blood  is  driven  into  the  blood-vessels  of  the 
skin  and  the  nerves  of  sensation  ending  here,  a  sense  of  warmth 
is  imparted ;  but  this  blood  is  taken  from  other  and  more  im- 
portant parts,  and  these  suffer. 

367.  Sometimes  this  enlargement  of  the  blood-vessels  of  the 
skin  becomes  permanent ;  it  then  frequently  shows  itself  upon 
the  nose.  Enlarged  and  prominent  veins  upon  the  nose  of  a 
drunkard  give  rise  lo  the  well-known  "  red  nose,''  by  which  we 
can  often  detect  the  unfortunate  victim  of  alcoholic  drink. 

368.  Effects  of  Alcohol  upon  the  Lungs,— Part  of 
the  alcohol  which  is  taken  in  is  given  off  by  the  expired  breath  ; 
hence,  the  breath  of  a  drunkard  is  alcohoUc.  Alcohol  reaches 
the  lungs  by  means  of  the  blood  ;  in  passing  through  the 
breathing  apparatus  it  causes  irritation.  While  we  are  not 
certain  that  it  produces  any  great  changes  in  the  lungs,  we  do 
know  that  persons  addicted  to  the  alcohol  habit  are  more  liable 
to  suffer  from  certain  slow  and.  obstinate  forms  of  lung  trouble 
than  others.  The  drunkard  is  also  particularly  liable  to  die,  if 
he  is  stricken  with  pneumonia,  by  which  we  mean  inflammation 
of  the  lungs  ;  his  chances  of  recovery  are  very  much  fewer 
than  if  he  were  not  addicted  to  alcohol. 


STIMULANTS.  173 

369.  Effects  of  Alcohol  upon  the  Nervous  System. — 

The  effects  of  alcohol  are  probably  shown  more  promiDently 
upon  the  nervous  system  than  upon  any  other  j)art  of  the  body. 
Every  part  of  the  neruoua  system — brain,  spinal  cord,  and  nerves 
— becomes  injur  to  u  sly  affected  as  a  result  of  alcoholic  drinks. 
Many  diseases  of  the  nervous  system  of  slow  growth  and  tedious 
duration  are  caused  by  alcoholic  excesses.  The  records  of 
insane  asylums  and  hospitals  for  nervous  diseases  give  un- 
doubted testimony  of  this  ;  one  quarter  of  all  the  cases  of  insanity 
in  this  country  are  the  result  of  alcoholism. 

370.  Effects  of  Alcohol  upon  the  Brain. — As  a  result  of 
the  irritating  effects  of  alcohol,  the  brain  first  becomes  excited ; 
this  excitement  is  soon  followed  by  the  opposite  condition,  and 
the  person  becomes  dull  and  stujnd.  It  is  sometimes  stated 
that  alcohol  rouses  the  brain  and  enables  it  to  do  more  and 
better  work  ;  it  has  also  been  stated  that  certain  authors  have 
done  their  best  work  when  somewhat  under  the  influence  of  this 
poison.  But  such  statements  are  either  entirely  erroneous  or 
merely  show  what  is  exceptional.  People  who  do  much  brain- 
work  usually  agree  that  they  are  mm^e  active  without  the  use  of 
alcoholics. 

371.  Alcohol  excites  the  brain  in  one  way,  but  it  is  not  the 
most  desirable  function  (the  intellect)  whicli  is  stimulated.  It 
excites  the  emotional  faculty  and  does  this  according  to  the 
natural  disposition  of  the  individual ;  persons  who  have  a  merry, 
good-natured  disposition  are  apt  to  become  boisterously  happy  ; 
others  who  are  of  a  quarrelsome  tendency  become  noisy  and 
disposed  to  fight.  It  unbridles  the  tongue  and  tempts  the  un- 
happy victim  to  say  things  which  he  should  not  say,  and  which 
he  feels  ashamed  of  afterward.  It  blunts  all  the  nobler  instincts, 
and  lets  loose  those  of  an  animal  nature. 

372.  The  membranes  covering  the  brain  become  thickened  and 
tough.     The  brain  itself  may  become  hardened. 

373.  Effects  of  Alcohol  upon  the  Spinal  Cord. — 
Alcohol  causes  a  number  of  slow,  tedious,  and  serious  diseases  of 


174  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 

the  spinal  cord.  It  interferes  with  proper  locomotion  and  use  of 
the  muscles.  This  is  controlled  by  the  spinal  cord.  The 
power  to  move  about  may  be  very  much  interfered  with.  In 
drunkenness,  the  gait  is  very  unsteady ;  the  victim  does  not 
seem  to  be  able  to  move  his  lower  limbs  so  as  to  walk  correctly. 
In  the  same  way,  the  upper  limbs  cannot  be  controlled  as  they 
should  be,  and  many  ridiculous  actions  result  when  an  attempt 
is  made  to  use  them  in  even  the  simplest  manner. 

374.  Effects  of  Alcohol  upon  the  Nerves.— The  nerves 
soon  become  affected  ;  this  shows  itself  in  unsteadiness.  The 
trembling  hands  of  the  drunkard  are  due  to  this  cause.  When 
he  attempts  to  put  out  his  tongue,  this  organ  also  twitches. 

375.  Drunkenness. — When  the  victim  of  the  alcoholic 
habit  imbibes  a  sufficient  quantity  to  get  himself  in  a  condition 
in  which  he  is  no  longer  responsible  for  what  he  does,  we  say 
he  is  drunk  or  intoxicated.  An  intoxicated  person  becomes 
stupid  in  intelligence,  but  excited  in  other  wa3's.  If  he  is 
naturally  cheerful,  he  will  become  noisily  gay,  or  attempt  to 
sing  in  a  hoarse  manner,  or  laugh  like  a  fool.  If  he  is  usually 
more  serious,  he  may  scold  or  attempt  to  make  a  speech,  saying 
many  ridiculous  things.  If  he  is  usually  quarrelsome,  he  will 
become  very  disagreeable  ;  he  will  fight,  and  he  then  becomes 
dangerous.  A  drunken  individual  is  unable  to  control  his  speech, 
is  unconscious  of  what  he  is  saying,  and  allows  his  tongue  to 
run  away  with  him.  He  is  unable  to  walk  straight ;  he  staggers 
along  in  a  pitiable  way,  catching  on  to  lamp-jDosts,  railings,  and 
fences  for  support.  Every  part  of  the  body  becomes  unsteady 
and  trembles.  He  forgets  that  he  is  a  human  being  and  acts 
like  a  brute.     A  drunken  man  is  a  disgusting  sight ! 

376.  If  drunkenness  be  repeated  many  times  and  becomes  a 
habit,  the  memory  begins  to  fail,  the  person  becomes  bloated 
and  fat,  the  complexion  j^oor,  his  breath  offensive,  his  health 
fails,  and  he  becomes  feeble  ;  his  hands  tremble,  his  eyes  and 
nose  are  constantly  reddened  ;  he  becomes  careless  and  dirty, 
unfit  for  any  occupation,  or  any  society. 


STIMULANTS.  175 

377.  Delirium  Tremens.— As  a  result  of  drunkenness, 
there  is  often  produced  a  disease  of  the  nervous  system  called 
delirium  tremens  ;  this  means  that  the  person  is  out  of  his  mind 
and  that  his  body  is  in  a  tremblirig  condition.  This  affection 
often  results  in  death  within  a  few  days.  While  it  lasts,  the 
drunkard  is  not  responsible  for  his  acts.  His  entire  body 
trembles.  He  attempts  all  sorts  of  violent  acts — injury  to 
others,  murder,  and  suicide.  He  has  an  insane  idea  that  he  is 
being  pursued  by  enemies  and,  in  endeavoring  to  escape^  often 
jumjDs  from  the  window,  and  in  other  ways  exj)oses  himself  to 
great  risks.  He  imagines  that  he  sees  mice,  rat^,  snakes,  and 
other  animcds,  and  he  thinks  these  are  pursuing  him  ;  from 
these  also  he  tries  to  escape.  In  his  delirium  a  constant  de- 
sire to  escape  asserts  itself ;  it  is  impossible  to  keep  him  quiet. 

378.  Effects  of  Alcohol  upon  the  Sight.— When  al- 
cohol is  used  in  large  quantities  it  has  a  very  disastrous  effect 
upon  the  nerve  of  the  eye,  the  optic  nerve,  and  consequently 
upon  sight.  Not  every  case  of  alcoholic  excess  is  followed  by 
this  change  ;  but  it  occurs  often  enough,  especially  in  those 
who  indulge  freely  in  alcoholic  liquor  of  the  stronger  sort,  to 
make  it  a  result  very  much  to  be  dreaded.  When  this  affec- 
tion occurs,  the  optic  nerve  luastes  away,  and  many  of  its 
nerve-fibres  disappear.  One  of  the  first  symptoms  is  color- 
blindness. At  first  there  is  only  partial  blindness  ;  the  patient 
is  still  able  to  see  large  letters,  but  cannot  see  to  read  fine  or 
even  medium-sized  print.  In  this  stage  it  is  possible  to  recover 
the  sight  entirely  if  the  patient  has  the  moral  courage  to  stop 
drinking.  But  if,  as  is  so  often  the  case,  he  cannot  resist  the 
temptation,  the  wasting  of  the  optic  nerve  continues  and  ends 
in  complete  blindness. 

379.  Effects  of  Alcohol  upon  the  Heat  of  the  Body.— 
There  is  an  erroneous  idea,  which  is  quite  prevalent,  that  alcohol 
increases  the  w^armth  of  the  body.  This  error  is  founded 
upon  the  fact  that  alcohol  drives  the  blood  into  the  skin,  caus- 
ing it  to  become  red  and  moist,  and  giving  a  feeling  of  warmth 


176  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,   AND   HYGIENE. 

to  the  body.  This  is  only  because  the  nerves  of  sensation  end 
in  the  skin  and  the  increased  warmth  of  the  surface  of  the  body 
makes  us  imagine  that  the  rest  of  the  body  is  similarly  affected. 
As  a  matter  of  fact  this  increased  warmth  only  applies  to  the 
surface  and  soon  passes  off;  then,  not  only  the  surface,  but 
also  the  interior  of  the  body  possesses  less  heat  than  before. 
Alcohol  causes  an  actual  lowering  of  the  temperature  of  the 
body. 

380.  Experiments  in  which  the  bodily  temperature  was  ac- 
curately measured  have  proven  this  over  and  over  again.  In 
fact,  those  physicians  who  use  alcohol  as  a  medicine  in  certain 
exhausting  fevers  do  so  chiefly  to  reduce  the  fever.  This  ef- 
fect of  alcohol  was  shown  very  well  in  Napoleon's  campaign  in 
Russia  ;  those  soldiers  who  did  not  indulge  in  alcoholic  drinks 
were  able  to  bear  the  intense  cold  much  better  than  those  who 
drank  such  beverages  ;  among  those  who  succumbed  to  the 
severe  cold  and  exposure,  by  far  the  majority  were  addicted  to 
the  use  of  alcohol.  Unquestionable  proof  of  this  effect  was 
furnished  by  the  histories  of  several  North-polar  expeditions, 
where  men  who  drank  freely  of  liquor  were  frozen  before  the 
rest.  Persons  who  are  exposed  to  great  cold,  know  from  ex- 
perience that  they  do  better  without  alcoholic  drink.  Hot 
coffee,  tea,  milk,  or  broth  are  the  most  useful  and  effective  bev- 
erages to  warm  the  system. 

381.  Effects  of  Alcohol  upon  Muscular  Strength. — 
It  is  also  a  mistaken  idea  that  alcohol  increases  muscular 
strength  and  the  power  of  endurance.  Alcohol  is  the  enemy  of 
muscle-tissue  ;  it  changes  it  into  fat.  Of  all  obstacles  to  the 
development  of  muscle,  there  is  none  greater  than  alcohok 
This  is  so  well  known  that  all  persons  who  train  in  order  to  ac- 
complish physical  feats  requiring  unusual  strength  and  the 
best  of  health,  give  up  all  use  of  alcohol.  Even  prize-fighters, 
limited  as  their  intelligence  usually  is,  have  found  this  out 
from  experience  and  consider  abstinence  from  alcoholic  drinks 
as  a  part  of  their  system  of  training.     Experiments  upon  whole 


STIMULANTS.  177 

armies  of  men  have  demonstrated  the  fact  that  soldiers  can 
witliatand  fatigue  and  exposure  much  better  when  deprived  of 
alcoholics. 

382.  Training. — The  word  train  requires  some  explana- 
tion. It  means  to  prepare  one's  self  for  great  muscular  feats, 
where  extraordinary  strength  and  endurance  are  necessary. 
Such  a  system  of  preparation  or  training  necessitates  the  most 
regular  and  healthful  life — retiring  early  and  rising  early  ; 
eating  the  most  digestible  and  strength-giving  food  ;  plenty  of 
out-door  exercise  ;  abstinence  from  alcohol  and  tobacco.  All 
this  is  done  to  develop  the  strength  and  the  power  of  endur- 
ance, and  to  make  the  muscles  as  strong  as  possible. 

383.  Everyone  has  probably  heard  of  the  great  boat-races 
which  take  place  every  year  between  Columbia  and  Harvard, 
and  between  Harvard  and  Yale  Universities,  and  also  of  the 
great  foot-ball  games  every  autumn.  There  is  great  rivalry  in 
athletic  sports  between  the  colleges  and,  of  course,  each  likes 
to  defeat  the  other.  Each  member  of  these  boat  crews  or 
football  elevens,  trains  throughout  the  winter  and  spring  until 
the  day  of  the  race  or  game,  so  as  to  become  as  strong  and 
robust  as  possible  and  increase  the  chances  of  winning.  Every 
member  of  the  crew  or  eleven  leads  a  most  regular  life,  and 
smoking  and  the  use  of  alcoholic  drinks  are  absolutely  for- 
bidden. 

384.  Effects  of  Alcohol  upon  the  Power  to  Resist 
Disease  and  to  Recover  from  Accidents. — The  poiver 
to  resist  disease  is  very  much  weakened  in  those  addicted  to  al- 
coholic drink.  If  such  a  person  becomes  ill  with  some  serious 
disease,  his  chances  of  recovery  are  very  much  fewer  than  if  he 
had  abstained  ;  this  is  particularly  the  case  in  pneumonia.  A 
report  of  the  British  Medical  Association  gives  the  following 
figures  :  In  ten  hundred  and  sixty-five  cases  of  pneumonia, 
there  were  one  hundred  and  ninety-two  deaths.  The  number 
of  deaths  among  the  total  abstainers  was  ten  per  cent.,  among 
the  temperate,  seventeen  per  cent.,  and  among  the  intemperate 


178  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 

forty-two  per  cent.  If  the  victim  of  the  alcohol  habit  meets 
with  an  accideDt,  it  will  take  him  longer  to  recover  ;  in  the 
case  of  a  fracture,  the  ends  of  the  broken  bone  unite  with  much 
greater  difficulty  than  in  ordinary  cases. 

385.  It  has  been  stated  that  alcohol  interferes  with  the 
power  to  resist  cold.  It  is  also  a  fact  that  persons  addicted  to 
the  use  of  alcoholic  drinks  are  less  able  to  withstand  prostra- 
tion and  diseases  caused  by  excessive  heat  than  are  those  who 
do  not  indulge.  The  testimony  of  Livingstone,  the  great  Afri- 
can traveller,  is  that  in  his  exploring  campaigns  into  the  heart 
of  Africa,  exposed  to  the  dangers  of  great  heat  and  prostrating 
fevers,  those  of  his  command  who  avoided  alcohol  showed  the 
greatest  amount  of  health  and  power  to  withstand  the  depress- 
ing influences  of  the  climate. 

386.  Alcohol  and  the  Expectancy  of  Life.— Life  insur- 
ance companies  give  us  the  best  estimates  of  the  chances  of 
long  life  among  the  victims  of  the  alcohol  habit,  as  compared 
with  those  who  have  abstained  from  alcohol.  It  may  be  well 
to  explain  the  principle  upon  which  these  life  insurance  com- 
panies do  business.  Life  inHurance  has  for  its  object  the  pay- 
ment of  a  certain  sum  of  money  by  the  company  to  the  heirs 
of  the  insured  person,  after  the  death  of  the  latter.  In  order 
to  become  insured,  a  person  is  examined  by  the  company's 
doctor  and  must  be  in  good  health  ;  he  must  then  pay  a  cer- 
tain sum  of  money  to  the  company  every  year,  usually  only  a 
small  fraction  of  the  amount  he  becomes  insured  for. 

387.  Insurance  companies  have  made  out  tables  showing 
how  long  a  person  can  expect  to  live  at  any  given  age  ;  of 
course,  these  show  only  averages,  for  none  of  us  can  say  he  will 
be  alive  to-morrow  or  knows  when  he  will  die.  These  tables 
give  what  is  called  the  "  expectancy  of  life  ;  "  they  show  that 
the  average  length  of  life  in  persons  who  indulge  freely  in 
alcoholic  drink  is  much  shorter  than  in  others,  and  in  the  case 
of  drunkards  it  is  very  short  indeed. 

388.  /it  the   age  of  twenty,   the   expectancy  of   life  in  the 


STIMULANTS.  179 

sober  is  fort3'-four  years  ;  in  the  drunken  it  is  fifteen  years. 
At  the  age  of  thirty,  the  expectancy  of  life  in  the  sober  is  thir- 
ty-six years  ;  in  the  dranken  it  is  fourteen  years.  At  the  age 
of  forty,  the  expectancy  of  life  in  the  sober  is  twenty-nine 
years  ;  in  the  drunken  it  is  only  eleven  years. 

389.  Fifty  years  experience  of  one  large  insurance  company 
has  shown  that  the  deaths  among  men  who  are  engaged  in  the 
liquor  business  and  wdio  drink  a  great  deal,  are  half  as  many 
again  as  among  all  other  classes  of  individuals  of  the  same  age. 
No  company  will  knowingly  insure  a  drunkard,  for  the  reason 
that  his  chances  for  a  long  life  are  very  few.  Many  companies 
refuse  to  insure  saloon-keepers,  because  they  are  usually  com- 
pelled to  take  much  alcoholic  liquor. 

390.  Moral  Effects  of  Alcoholic  Drink. — The  moral 
view  of  the  alcohol  question  is  a  very  important  one.  No  one 
will  deny  that  it  is  a  shocking  sight  to  behold  an  intoxicated 
man  stagger  along  the  street,  holding  on  to  anything  for  sup- 
port, unable  to  control  speech  or  motion,  offensive  in  breath, 
and  dirty  in  appearance. 

391.  Even  the  milder  forms  of  alcoholic  poisoning  are  asso- 
ciated with  conditions  which  are  well  worth  considering?.  There 
are  millions  of  dollars  uselessly  spent  for  alcoholic  drink  each 
year.  How  many  useful  things  this  immense  sum  of  money 
would  purchase  and  how  much  good  it  might  accomplish  i 
Consider  how  much  time  is  wasted  in  saloons,  often  in 
wretched  companionship,  which  might  otherwise  be  given  to 
the  family  at  home. 

392.  The  Alcohol  Habit. — Men  do  not  become  drunk- 
ards at  once  ;  they  reach  this  stage  gradually.  They  commence 
with  small  quantities  of  drink.  The  habit  of  drinking  is 
formed  and  grows  until  larger  and  larger  amounts  must  be 
consumed  in  order  to  satisfy.  The  use  of  alcoholics  creates  an 
appetite  or  craving  for  more.  As  long  as  alcohol  is  in  the  sys- 
tem, there  exists  a  desire  for  it  ;  and  the  amount  necessary  to 
satisfy  this  longing  constantly  increases  ;  an  appetite  for  more 


180  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 

alcohol  is  created  and  tbis  is  frequently  almost  irresistible. 
The  danger  increases  because  the  moral  poiver  to  resist  be- 
comes weaketied.  Thus  a  vicious  circle  is  set  up  which  im- 
prisons its  victim  and  leads  to  drunkenness. 

393.  Dipsomania. — The  alcohol  appetite,  when  established, 
constitutes  a  serious  disease;  it  is  a  form  of  insanity — a  va- 
riety of  mania,  called  dipsomania  (meaning  drink  -  madness). 
Special  institutions  known  as  inehriate  asylums  are  built  for 
these  unfortunate  victims.  These  institutions  i^eceive  many  jm- 
tients ;  here  and  there  a  permanent  cure  results  ;  but  usually 
there  is  but  a  temporary  cessation  of  drinking,  and  sooner  or 
later  the  inebriate  lapses  into  his  former  habits. 

394.  Nor  is  this  all.  The  alcohol  aj^petite,  the  irresistible 
desire  for  alcoholics,  is  sometimes  transmitted  from  one  genera- 
tion to  another  ;  the  infirmity  of  the  parent  is  not  infrequently 
inherited  by  the  children. 

395.  Alcohol  is  a  Costly  Vice.— In  1893,  the  con- 
sumption of  alcoholic  drink  in  the  United  States  reached  the 
following  enorni 0 as  figures  :  Distilled  spirits  (liquors),  one  hun- 
dred million  gallons  ;  wines,  thirty  million  gallons  ;  malt  liq- 
uors, twelve  hundred  million  gallons.  The  yearly  cost  of  al- 
coholic drink  in  the  United  States  is  said  to  he  over  one  billion 
dollars. 

396.  Alcohol  and  Crime. — The  use  of  intoxicating  liq- 
uor is  the  most  common  cause  of  crime ;  this  fact  must  be  con- 
ceded by  everyone.  One  of  the  reports  of  the  Prison  Associa- 
tion of  New  York  contains  the  following  passage  :  "There  can 
be  no  doubt  that  of  all  the  proximate  sources  of  crime  the  use 
of  intoxicating  liquors  is  the  most  prolific  and  the  most  deadly. 
Of  other  causes  it  may  be  said  that  they  slaj^  their  thousands  ; 
of  this  it  may  be  acknowledged  that  it  slays  its  tens  of  thou- 
sands. The  committee  asked  for  the  opinion  of  the  jail  officers 
in  nearly  every  county  of  the  State  as  to  the  proportion  of  com- 
mitments due  either  directly  or  indirectly  to  strong  drinks. 
The  judgment  of  these  jail  officers  varied  from  two-thirds,  the 


STIMULANTS.  181 

lowest  estimate,  to  nine-tenths  as  the  highest,  and  on  reduc- 
ing the  several  proportions  to  the  average,  mmn-eiyhths  was 
the  result  obtained." 


COFFEE,  TEA,  COCOA  AND  CHOCOLATE. 

397.  Coffee,  tea,  cocoa,  and  chocolate  are  among  the  most 
common  artificial  drinks  and  are  very  useful  forms  of  stimu- 
lants. Their  stimulating  effects  dej^end  upon  the  presence  of 
an  active  agent  which  is  practically  identical  in  each.  In  cof- 
fee, it  is  called  coffein  ;  in  tea,  thein  ;  and  when  derived  from 
cocoa,  tlieohromin.  These  act  as  gentle  stimulants  without  in- 
jurious reaction  ;  there  is  no  objection  to  their  use  in  moderate 
quantity  by  adults.  Coffee  and  tea  are  not  suitable  for  chil- 
dren ;  if  used  at  all,  the  quantity  should  be  limited  to  a  small 
amount — just  enough  to  color  or  flavor  the  milk. 

398.  Coffee. — Most  of  the  coffee  used  in  this  country  comes 
from  the  West  and  East  Indies,  Arabia,  and  South  America. 
The  part  of  the  plant  used  is  the  herry.  The  berries  are  dried 
and  roasted,  developing  a  delicious  flavor  or  aroma.  The 
roasted  coffee  "beans"  are  ground;  then  boiling  ivater  is 
poured  upon  them  and  the  whole  mixture  allowed  to  boil  for 
a  minute  or  two,  making  a  decoction.  This  process  extracts 
the  caffein,  coloring  matter,  flavor,  and  a  moderate  quantity  of 
nutritious  matter. 

399.  Coffee  causes  a  restful  feeling  after  exhausting  efforts 
of  body  and  mind.  It  is  a  valuable  addition  to  food  and  may 
also  be  regarded  as  a  temporary  substitute  for  food.  With  a 
liberal  allowance  of  coffee  laborers  are  able  to  do  a  large 
amount  of  work  upon  a  moderate  quantity  of  food. 

400.  In  armies,  it  is  a  most  valuable  addition  to  rations, 
which  are  frequently  imperfect ;  it  relieves  the  sense  of  fatigue 
after  long  marches  and  unusual  taxes  upon  endurance.  After 
exposure  to  cold,  it  is  an  ideal  stimulant ;  it  relieves  the  de- 


182  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY.    AND   HYGIENE. 

pressing  effects  of  low  temperature,  and  since  it  is  usually 
taken  hot,  supplies  heat  to  the  body  at  the  same  time,  as  has 
been  effectively  demonstrated  in  Arctic  expeditions.  Coffee 
is,  therefore,  a  valuable  and  harmless  stimulant,  acting  like  a 
charm  upon  tired  conditions  of  the  system,  and  free  from  the 
objections  to  alcoholic  drinks. 

401.  These  are  the  general  effects  of  coffee  ;  there  are,  how- 
ever, exceptions  to  these  favorable  actions.  Some  persons  can- 
not drink  coffee  at  all  ;  in  such  cases  it  has  a  peculiar  and 
disagreeable  effect  and  causes  nervousness,  trembling,  headache, 
indigestion,  j^n-lpitation  of  the  heart,  and  wakefulness  at  night. 
Most  persons,  however,  are  not  thus  affected  unless  they  drink 
an  excessive  amount. 

402.  Tea. — The  tea-plant  is  cultivated  principally  in  China, 
Japan,  and  the  East  Indies.  To  jorepare  tea,  boiling  water  is 
poured  upon  a  small  quantit}''  of  tea-leaves  forming  an  infusion  ; 
it  must  not  be  boiled,  for  this  drives  off  the  agreeable  flavor 
with  the  steam,  and  dissolves  too  much  of  a  bitter  and  astrin- 
gent agent  in  the  water.  There  are  many  kinds  of  tea,  and 
many  mixtures  are  made  to  conform  to  different  tastes.  Green 
tea  is  sometimes  used  ;  this  variety  is  apt  to  be  injurious,  es- 
pecially in  the  production  of  nervous  symptoms. 

403.  Tea  has  the  same  general  composition  as  coffee,  but 
has  much  less  nourishing  matter.  It  produces  the  same  effects 
upon  the  system  and  forms  a  desirable  stimidant.  It  also  pro- 
duces similar  nervous  symptoms  when  used  in  excess,  or  when 
taken  by  those  persons  in  whom  both  tea  and  coffee  act  dis- 
agreeably even  in  small  quantities. 

404.  Cocoa  and  Chocolate. — The  cocoa-tree  is  a  native 
of  tropical  America.  The  seeds  contain  a  stimulating  principle 
identical  with  that  found  in  coffee  and  tea ;  in  addition  they 
are  very  rich  in  nutriment,  consisting  of  about  one-half  veg- 
etable fat.  Cocoa  is  prepared  like  coffee  by  making  a  decoction 
of  the  ground  seeds.  Chocolate  is  cocoa  which  has  been  ground 
up  with  sugar  and  certain  flavoring  agents.     Both  cocoa  and 


STIMULANTS.  183 

chocolate  are  desirable  stimulants ;  they  are  7?iore  nutritious 
than  either  tea  or  coffee,  but  less  stimulating.  For  these  rea- 
sons they  should  receive  preference  over  tea  and  coffee  as  bev- 
erages for  children. 


COCA-LEAVES  AND  COCAINE. 

405.  Another  stimulant  which  has  obtained  use  of  late  years, 
is  the  leaf  of  the  coca-plant,  a  small,  bushy  shrub,  found  and 
cultivated  in  certain  parts  of  South  America.  This  stimulant 
must  not  he  confounded  with  cocoa,  the  bean  froni  which  choco- 
late is  made.  The  coca-leaf  was  first  heard  of  through  travellers 
in  South  America,  who  gave  very  graphic  accounts  of  the  marvel- 
lous powers  of  this  agent  in  enabling  the  natives  to  endure 
physical  hardships,  not  only  sustaining  their  strength  and  giving 
them  powers  of  endurance,  but  postponing  the  feeling  of  hunger. 

406.  These  accounts  were  evidently  exaggerations,  since  no 
such  wonderful  effects  follow  the  use  of  the  leaves  as  observed 
in  this  country.  However,  it  has  an  effect  similar  to  that  of  tea 
and  coffee  ;  it  stimulates  and  increases  the  i^hysical  and  mental 
powers  and  promotes  cheerfulness,  tending  to  do  away  with  feel- 
ing of  worry.  It  is  also  prescribed  by  throat  doctors  who 
claim  that  it  has  a  good  effect  in  strengthening  the  vocal  cords 
and  the  voice.  But  as  there  is  a  very  serious  objection  to  its  use, 
and  since  other  harmless  remedies  w411  accomplish  similar 
results,  coca-leaves  are  objectionable  in  any  case,  unless  pre- 
scribed by  a  physician. 

407.  Cocaine. — The  effects  of  coca-leaves  are  due  to  the 
existence  of  an  active  princijDle  known  as  cocaine;  this  is  ob- 
tained in  small,  white  crystals.  When  taken  internally,  cocaine 
acts  as  the  coca-leaves  from  which  it  is  extracted.  But  w^hen 
applied  externally,  cocaine  has  a  wonderful  effect  upon  tissues 
with  which  it  comes  in  contact ;  it  benumbs  the  small  nerves 
which  carry  sensations  of  feeling  and  of  pain  ;  and  in  this  way 
the  part  to  which  it  is  applied  loses  all  sensation. 


184  AT^ATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 

408.  The  Cocaine  Habit. — But  though  the  use  of  cocame 
for  controlling  pain  is  wonderful  and  of  the  greatest  value,  it 
has,  unfortunately,  been  attended  with  very  serious  and  even 
fatal  results.  Quite  a  number  of  persons  have  acquired  the 
habit  of  taking  cocaine  and  have  become  slaves  to  it.  In  some 
of  these  cases,  the  cocaine  was  given  for  the  cure  of  the  alcohol 
and  the  morphine  habit ;  usually  it  has  failed  to  cure  these 
habits  and  the  unfortunate  victims  have  simply  had  the  cocaine 
habit  added  to  the  others.  Usually  the  drug  is  originally  taken 
to  relieve  exhaustion  and  to  exhilarate ;  an  appetite  for  cocaine 
is  then  estabhshed,  and  larger  and  larger  doses  are  required  to 
satisfy.  The  habit  becomes  firmly  established  and  produces 
disastrous  results  upon  mind  and  body. 

409.  Similar  results  may  follow  the  habitual  use  of  "  wine  of 
coca"  a  preparation  in  which  the  active  parts  of  the  coca  leaves 
are  dissolved  in  wine.  The  careless  and  frequent  indulgence  in 
this  stimulant  not  only  tends  to  produce  the  coca  habit,  but 
favors  the  alcohol  habit  as  well. 

SYNOPSIS. 

Stimulants — Excite  the  system  or  some  part  of  it. 
Drags:  Ammonia,  camphor,  etc.,  "tonics," 
"Water  and  Food  ;  drink  of  cold  water  ;  liquid  food  which  is 
easily  digested. 

Tea  and  Coffee  ;  usually  valuable  in  adults  ;  not  generally  suit- 
able for  children. 
Cold  bath. 

Alcohol  and  Alcoholic  Drinks. 

Discovery  of  Alcohol — about  three  thousand  years  ago. 

Alcoholic  Drinks  :  beverages  which  contain  alcohol ;  intoxicating  ; 
vary  in  their  proportion  of  alcohol ;  flavor ;  sweet  and  dry  ;  dark 
and  light ;  sparkling  and  still  ;  strong  and  weak  ;  varieties: 
malt  liquors,  cider,  wines,  distilled  spirits,  cordials. 

Non-alcoholic  Drinks:  "Soft"  or  temperance  drinks  ;  non-intoxi- 
cating ;  examples :  ginger-ale,  soda-water,  sarsaj^arilla,  root- 
beer,  birch-beer,  lemonade. 


STIMULANTS.  185 

Properties  of  Alcohol : 

1.  Clear  and  colorless  liquid. 

2.  Mixes  with  water. 

3.  Resembles  water,  but  lighter. 

4.  Pleasant  odor. 

5.  Takes  fire  readily  and  burns  with  faint  bluish  flame,  no 
smoke  or  soot. 

6.  Gives  very  little  light,  but  considerable  heat. 

7.  Taste  hot  and  burning. 

8.  Evaj)orates  easily. 
Uses  of  Alcohol  : 

1.  Alcohol-lamps  very  convenient. 

2.  Dissolves  oils  and  resins  ;  makes  varnish. 

3.  Extracts  useful  parts  of  leaves,  barks,  roots,  and  herbs, 
forming  tinctures ;  dissolves  certain  oils,  forming  essences  or 
spirits. 

4.  Making  thermometers. 

5.  Preserving  vegetable  and  animal  tissues. 

Formation  of  Alcohol :  from  starch  and  sugar ;  product  of  decom- 
position. 

Fermentation  :  change  of  starch  and  sugar  into  alcohol  ;    due  to 
growth  of  minute  living  germs  from  the  air ;  requisites  :  mois- 
ture, moderate  heat,  peculiar  germ  or  ferment,  nutritious  mat- 
ter for  this  germ  or  ferment  to  feed  upon. 
Important  varieties : 

1.  Acetous— changing  alcohol  to  vinegar  ;  seen  when  cider  or 
wine  sours. 

2.  Alcoholic  or  Vinous — forming  alcohol  and  carbonic-acid 
gas  from  starchy  or  sugary  fluids,  by  the  aid  of  yeast,  moisture, 
heat,  and  nutritious  matter. 

Germs  in  the  air  give  rise  to 

1.  Fermentation. 

2.  Mould  and  putrefaction. 

3.  Contagious  diseases. 

Yeast-plant :  responsible  for  alcoholic  fermentation  ;  large  quantity 
produced  in  manufacture  of  beer ;  vegetable  ;  each  cell  grows 
rapidly  and  divides  to  form  two  cells.  Yeast  used  in  baking 
bread  to  make  it  light  and  porous. 

Distillation  :  the  process  by  which  a  fluid  is  changed  into  vapor  by 


186  AT^ATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 

heat  and  then  condensed  again  into  liquid;  used  in  manufac- 
ture of  alcohoL 
How  Alcohol  is  Made  : 

1.  Addition  of  yeast  and  water  to  starchy  or  sugary  substance. 

2.  Moderate  heat, 

3.  Boiling  to  drive  off  alcohol— Distillation. 
Varieties  of  Alcoholic  Drinks  : 

1.  Malt  Liquors  :  Made  from  malt  (barley  which  has  been  al- 
lowed to  sprout  and  is  then  heated  in  oven)  ;  contain  from  four  to 
eight  per  cent,  of  alcohol. 

a.  Beer. 
h.  Ale. 

c.  Porter. 

d.  Stout. 

2.  Cider  :  the  fermented  juice  of  apples  ;  contains  from  four  to 
eight  per  cent,  of  alcohol ;  when  sweet,  little  alcohol ;  when  hard, 
considerable  alcohol. 

3.  Wines  :  the  fermented  juice  of  grapes  ;  contain  from  nine  to 
twenty  per  cent,  of  alcohol. 

White  and  red. 
Sweet  and  dry. 
Effervescent  wines. 
Home-made  wines. 

4.  Distilled  Spirits— Liquors  :  distilled  from  grain,  potatoes, 
molasses,  etc.  ;  contain  one-half  alcohol  ;  differ  in  flavor  and  color. 

a.  Whiskey — from  rye  or  corn  ;  cheap  kind  from  potatoes, 
h.   Brandy — from  grapes  and  other  fruit. 

c.  Bum — from  molasses. 

d.  Arrack — from  rice. 

e.  Gin — flavored  with  juniper  berries. 
/.  Absinthe — flavored  with  wormwood. 

5.  Cordials  :  sweetened,  colored  liquids,  variously  flavored ; 
contain  one-third  alcohol. 

6.  Bitters,  tonics,  elixirs,  and  other  patent  medicines  usually 
contain  considerable  alcohol. 

General  Effects  of  Alcohol  and  of  Alcoholic  Drink. 

1.  Use  as  a  medicine. 

2.  Prescribed  by  some  physicians  as  a  stimulant  and  as  a  food 
in  fevers  and  in  wasting  diseases. 


STIMULANTS.  187 

3.  Great  responsibility  rests  upon  the  physician  who  thus  in-e- 
scribes  it,  on  account  of  the  danger  of  initiating  the  alcohol  habit. 

4.  Not  used  as  a  medicine,  nor  as  a  food  as  much  as  formerly. 

5.  Many  doctors  now  use  other  remedies  in  place  of  alcohol 
with  equally  good  results. 

6.  Ordinarily  it  does  not  act  as  a  food. 

7.  No  nourishment  in  alcoholic  drinks,  except  in  malt  liquors, 
and  here  the  amount  is  small  and  the  alcohol  is  objectionable. 

8.  The  world  would  be  much  better  off  without  alcohol ;  other 
substances  would  be  found  to  take  its  place. 

9.  No  cause  of  crime  so  great  and  wide-spread  as  drink. 
Effects  of  Alcohol  upon  the  Tissues  and  Functions  of  the  Body  : 

1.  Irritates  and  reddens  lining  of  stomach ;  hardens  lining  of 
stomach  ;  destroys  glands. 

2.  Nausea  and  vomiting ;  dyspepsia  ;  indigestion. 

3.  Irritates,  reddens,  and  toughens  the  intestines  and  interferes 
with  digestion  of  food. 

4.  Enlarges  and  then  contracts  liver  ;  "  gin-drinker's  "  or  '*  hob- 
nailed liver  ; "  interferes  with  important  work  of  liver. 

5.  Weakens  muscle  tissue  and  changes  it  into  fat. 

6.  Prevents  skeleton  from  reaching  its  natural  size  ;  bones 
break  easily  and  then  do  not  unite  readily. 

7.  Excites  the  heart,  increases  its  size,  causes  it  to  act  irregu- 
larly and  imperfectly,  too  rapidly  or  too  slowly  ;  changes  heart 
muscle  into  fat  and  weakens  it. 

8.  Blood-vessels  become  stiff,  brittle,  and  dilated ;  apoplexy  of- 
ten occurs. 

9.  Flushed  face  and  red  nose  due  to  yielding  of  blood-vessels  of 
the  skin. 

10.  Irritates  the  lungs  ;  breath  is  alcoholic  ;  pneumonia  usu- 
ally fatal  in  drunkards. 

11.  Every  part  of  nervous  system  injuriously  affected  ;  causes 
many  nervous  diseases  ;  causes  one-fourth  of  all  cases  of  insanity. 

12.  Excites  the  emotional  faculty  of  brain,  but  dulls  the  intel- 
lect. 

13.  Membranes  covering  brain  become  thickened  and  tough- 
ened. 

14.  Causes  diseases  of  spinal  cord  ;  interferes  with  power  of 
motion. 


188  AliATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 

15.  Affects  the  nerves,  causing  unsteadiness  and  trembling. 

16.  Drunkenness  or  intoxication. 

17.  Delirium  Tremens  :  out  of  his  mind ;  trembling  ;  violent 
acts  ;  frightened  by  imaginary  objects  ;  attempts  to  escape;  heart 
failure. 

18.  Causes  partial  or  complete  blindness,  through  wasting  of 
optic  nerve. 

19.  Diminishes  warmth  of  body. 

20.  Diminishes  muscular  strength  and  the  power  of  endurance. 

21.  Diminishes  the  2^0 wer  to  resist  disease  and  to  recover  from 
accidents. 

22.  Lessens  the  duration  of  life. 
The  Alcohol  Habit. 

1.  Acquired  gradually. 

2.  Grows  constantly. 

3.  Appetite  or  craving  created. 

4.  Very  difficult  to  cure. 

5.  Moral  sense  blunted. 

6.  Power  of  self-control  and  of  resistance  to  temptation  lessened 
or  lost. 

7.  Danger  of  relaj^se  after  cure. 

8.  Dipsomania  (drink-madness),  a  serious  disease  in  which  there 
is  an  uncontrollable  desire  for  alcoholic  drink. 

9.  Inebriate  asylums  receive  many,  but  cure  few. 

10.  Inherited  by  child  from  parent. 

11.  A  costly  vice  ;  annual  cost  in  United  States,  over  one  billion 
dollars. 

12.  Immense  amount  of  alcohol  consumed  each  year  ;  in  the 
United  States,  in  1893,  this  consumption  was  :  distilled  spirits, 
one  hundred  million  gallons  ;  wine,  thirty  million  gallons ;  malt 
liquors,  twelve  hundred  million  gallons. 

13.  The  most  common  cause  of  crime  ;  seven -eighths  of  all  crime 
due  to  strong  drink. 

Tea  and  Coffee : 

1.  Valual)le  stimulants,  usually  without  injurious  reaction. 

2.  Contain  thein  (tea)  and  caffein  (coffee). 

3.  Not  suitable  for  children. 

4.  Tea  used  in  infusion  ;  coffee  in  decoction. 

5.  Cause  restful  feeling  after  exhaustive  efforts  of  body  and  mind. 


STIMULANTS.  189 

6.  Valuable  after  exp(isure  to  cold. 

7.  Some  persons  disagreeably  affected  ;  nervousness,  headache, 
indigestion,  palpitation  of  heart,  wakefulness  at  night. 

8.  These  effects  may  follow  over-indulgence. 

9.  Green  tea  apt  to  be  injurious. 
Cocoa  and  Chocolate  : 

1.  Desirable  stimulants. 

2.  Contain  considerable  nourishment, 

3.  More  nutritious,  but  less  stimulating,  than  tea  or  coffee. 

4.  Chocolate  is  cocoa  ground  u^^  with  sugar  and  flavoring 
agents. 

5.  Useful  for  children  as  well  as  adults. 
Coca  Leaves  and  Cocaine  : 

1.  Wonderful  but  exaggerated  accounts  of  effects  when  used  by 
South  American  Indians. 

2.  Resemble  tea  and  coffee  in  effects. 

3.  Increase  physical  and  mental  power,  and  promote  cheerful- 
ness. 

4.  Objectionable  unless  prescribed  by  a  physician. 

5.  Coca  leaves  contain  cocaine  ;  small  white  crystals. 

6.  Cocaine  benumbs  the  nerves  of  the  part  to  which  it  is  ap- 
plied ;  of  immense  value  in  operations  upon  the  eye  and  other 
parts,  deadening  pain. 

7.  Cocaine  poisoning  may  occur. 

8.  Cocaine  habit ;  very  disastrous  ;  frequently  ends  in  insanity. 


QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  are  stimulants  ?  2.  Which  are  the  most  common  ?  3. 
Give  an  example  of  the  proj)er  use  of  stimulants.  4.  How  do  water 
and  food  act  as  stimulants  ?  5.  Are  tea  and  coffee  useful  stimu- 
lants? 6.  What  condition  frequently  follows  the  use  of  stimulants? 
7.  Explain  the  derivation  of  the  name  alcohol.  8.  When  and  how 
was  alcohol  discovered?  9.  What  is  meant  by  alcoholic  drinks? 
10.  What  makes  them  intoxicating?  11.  What  are  the  variations  in 
alcoholic  drinks  due  to?  12.  What  is  meant  by  non-alcoholic 
drinks?  13.  What  other  names  are  applied  to  these  beverages? 
J4.  What  do  they  consist  of  ?     15.  What  examples  can  you  give  ? 


190  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AI^D   HYGIENE. 

16.  What  are  the  x^i'operties  of  alcohol  ?.  17.  What  happens  when 
alcohol  takes  fire  ?  18.  What  are  the  uses  of  alcohol  ?  19.  What 
are  alcohol-lamps  ?  20.  Wliat  is  varnish  ?  21.  What  are  tinctures  ? 
22.  Why  is  alcohol  used  in  certain  thermometers  ?  23.  Can  alcohol 
be  detected  during  the  life  of  plants  ?  21.  From  what  is  it  formed  ? 
25.  What  is  fermentation  ?  26.  What  are  the  requisites  for  fer- 
mentation ?  27.  W^hat  are  the  important  varieties  of  fermentation  ? 
28.  What  is  acetous  fermentation  ?  29.  What  is  vinegar  ?  30.  How 
is  vinegar  made?  31.  What  do  you  know  about  the  minute  living- 
bodies  or  germs  in  the  air  ?  32.  What  diiferent  processes  do  they 
give  rise  to  ?  33.  Wliat  is  alcoholic  fermentation  ?  34.  What  is 
the  yeast-plant?  35.  Why  is  yeast  used  in  baking  bread?  36.  De- 
scribe the  action  of  yeast  in  the  process  of  making  bread.  37.  How 
is  alcohol  made  ?  38.  From  what  is  alcohol  formed  ?  39.  What  is 
necessary  to  produce  alcoholic  fermentation  ?  10.  What  is  distilla- 
tion? 41.  What  kinds  of  alcoholic  drinks  are  there?  42.  What 
are  malt  liquors?  13.  What  varieties  of  malt  liquors  are  there? 
14.  How  is  beer  made  ?  45.  Why  is  the  barley  allowed  to  sprout  ? 
46.  W^liat  is  malt  ?  47.  What  is  ale  ?  48.  How  are  porter  and  stout 
made  ?  49.  How  much  alcohol  do  malt  liquors  contain  ?  50.  How 
is  cider  made  ?  51.  How  much  alcohol  does  it  contain  ?  52.  What 
is  the  difference  between  sweet  and  hard  cider  ?  53.  From  what  is 
wine  made  ?  54.  How  much  alcohol  do  wines  contain  ?  55.  Why 
are  some  wines  white  and  others  red  ?  56.  What  is  meant  by  a 
sweet  wine  ?  57.  What  is  meant  by  a  dry  wine  ?  58.  What  is  an 
effervescent  wine?  59.  Name  some  home-made  wines.  60.  Why 
are  home-made  wines  just  as  injurious  as  others  ?  61.  What  are 
distilled  spirits  or  liquors?  62.  From  what  are  they  made  ?  63. 
How  much  alcohol  do  they  contain?  64.  What  is  whiskey?  65. 
What  is  brandy  ?  66.  What  is  rum  ?  67.  What  is  gin  ?  68.  What 
is  absinthe?  69.  What  is  arrack?  70.  What  are  cordials?  71. 
How  much  alcohol  do  they  contain  ?  72.  What  is  the  danger  in 
taking  bitters,  tonics,  elixirs,  and  other  patent  medicines?  73. 
What  additional  danger  arises  from  artificially  pre2')ared  alcoholic 
drinks  ?  74.  For  what  purposes  is  alcohol  prescribed  by  the  phy- 
sician ?  75.  Why  does  the  doctor  assume  a  great  responsibility  when 
he  advises  alcohol  as  a  medicine?  76.  Are  alcoholic  drinks  pre- 
scribed as  frequently  as  a  food  and  stimulant  as  formerly  ?  77. 
Why  not?     78.  Is  alcohol  or  alcoholic  drink  ordinarily  a  food ?     79. 


STIMULANTS.  191 

Is  there  any  nourishment  in  alcoholic  drinks  ?  80.  Is  there  any 
nourishment  in  malt  liquors?  81.  Why  should  malt  liquors  be 
avoided  as  nourishing  food  ?  82.  What  is  the  meaning  and  deriva- 
tion of  the  word  intoxicating?  83,  Could  we  do  without  alcohol? 
84.  What  would  be  the  effect  upon  the  world  if  there  were  no  such 
thing  as  alcohol  ?  85.  What  influence  has  the  use  of  alcoholic  drink 
upon  crime  ?  86.  What  effect  has  alcohol  ui:)on  the  walls  of  the 
stomach  ?  87.  What  influence  has  alcohol  upon  digestion  ?  88. 
From  what  derangement  of  the  stomach  do  drunkards  frequently 
su£fer?  89.  What  effect  has  alcohol  upon  the  intestines  :  90.  What 
effect  has  alcohol  upon  the  liver  ?  91.  How  does  it  change  the  size  of 
the  liver  ?  92.  What  is  "  gin-drinker's  liver  "  ?  93.  What  effect  has 
alcohol  upon  the  development  of  muscles  ?  94  What  effect  has  it 
upon  muscle  tissue  ?  95.  What  is  the  large  and  bloated  appearance 
of  the  drunkard  due  to  ?  96.  What  effect  has  alcohol  upon  the  size  of 
the  skeleton  ?  97.  What  is  peculiar  about  the  bones  of  the  drunk- 
ard ?  98.  What  effect  has  alcohol  upon  the  union  of  the  ends  of 
bone  after  a  fracture?  99.  What  are  the  effects  of  alcohol  upon  the 
size  of  the  heart  ?  100.  What  effect  upon  the  walls  of  the  heart  ? 
101.  What  effect  upon  the  action  of  the  heart?  102.  What  are  the 
effects  of  alcohol  upon  the  blood-vessels  ?  103.  What  is  apoplexy  ? 
104.  What  are  the  results  of  apoplexy  ?  105.  W^hat  changes  occur 
in  the  skin  as  a  result  of  alcoholic  drink  ?  106.  To  what  is  the  red 
nose  of  the  drunkard  due  ?  107.  What  are  the  effects  of  alcohol 
upon  the  lungs?  108.  What  is  joeculiar  about  pneumonia  occurring 
in  drunkards?  109.  What  are  the  effects  of  alcohol  upon  the  ner- 
vous system  in  general  ?  110.  What  influence  has  alcohol  upon  the 
occurrence  of  insanity  ?  111.  What  are  the  effects  of  alcohol  upon 
the  brain?  112.  Upon  the  intellect?  113.  Upon  the  emotional 
faculties  ?  114.  Give  examples.  115.  What  effect  has  alcohol  upon 
the  membranes  of  the  brain  ?  116.  Upon  the  spinal  cord  ?  117. 
Upon  the  nerves  ?  118.  What  is  drunkenness  or  intoxication  ?  119. 
Describe  this  state,  120.  What  condition  results  when  it  is  re- 
peated a  number  of  times?  121.  What  is  delirium  tremens?  122. 
Give  its  symptoms,  123.  What  effect  has  alcohol  upon  the  oj^tic 
nerve?  124.  Upon  sight?  125.  Upon  the  heat  of  the  body?  126. 
Give  examples  to  show  the  effect  of  alcohol  upon  the  warmth  of  the 
body,  127,  What  effect  has  alcohol  upon  muscular  strength  ?  128, 
Upon  the  power  of  endurance  ?    129.  What  is  the  object  of  train- 


192  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 

ing?  130.  What  are  the  most  important  rules  of  training?  131. 
What  is  the  effect  of  alcohol  upon  the  power  to  resist  disease  ?  132. 
Upon  the  j)ower  to  recover  from  accidents  ?  133.  Give  examples. 
134.  What  effect  has  alcohol  upon  the  power  to  resist  the  depress- 
ing influences  of  a  hot  climate  ?  135.  Upon  the  expectancy  of  life  ? 
136.  Give  examples.  137.  What  is  life  insurance?  138.  Mention 
some  of  the  moral  objections  to  the  use  of  alcoholic  drinks.  139. 
What  is  the  alcohol  habit  ?  140.  Why  does  it  grow  ?  141.  What 
does  it  lead  to?  142.  What  is  dipsomania?  143.  What  are  in- 
ebriate asylums?  144.  Can  the  alcohol  appetite  be  inherited?  145. 
How  much  money  is  spent  in  the  United  States  for  alcoholic  drink 
every  year?  146.  How  much  alcoholic  drink  is  consumed  annually 
in  the  United  States  ?  147.  What  relation  has  alcohol  to  crime  ? 
148.  What  proof  is  there  that  alcohol  is  the  most  common 
source  of  crime  ?  149.  What  is  coffee?  150.  Where  is  it  obtained? 
151.  How  is  it  prepared  ?  152.  What  does  it  contain  ?  153.  Wliat 
are  its  effects  ?  154.  What  disagreeable  effects  sometimes  result 
from  the  use  of  coffee?  155.  What  is  tea?  156.  Where  is  it  culti- 
vated? 157.  How  is  it  prepared?  158.  What  does  it  contain  ?  159. 
What  are  its  effects ?  160.  What  objection  is  there  to  green  tea? 
161.  What  unj)leasant  effects  sometimes  result  from  tea?  162.  Are 
tea  and  coffee  suitable  for  children?  163.  What  is  cocoa?  164. 
What  is  chocolate  ?  165.  What  are  the  uses  of  cocoa  and  choco- 
late? 166.  How  do  they  differ  from  tea  and  coffee  ?  167.  What  are 
coca-leaves?  168.  Where  does  the  coca-plant  grow?  169.  How 
was  the  coca-leaf  first  heard  of?  170.  What  active  principle  does 
it  contain?  171.  What  are  the  effects  of  the  coca-leaf?  172.  What 
are  the  effects  of  cocaine  when  taken  internally  ?  173.  What  are 
the  effects  of  cocaine  when  applied  externally?  174.  Why  is  it  of 
immense  value  to  the  surgeon  ?  175.  What  is  cocaine  poisoning  ? 
176.  What  is  the  cocaine  habit  ?  177.  What  are  the  results  of  the 
cocaine  habit? 


CHAPTEE   XL 
NARCOTICS. 

410.  Nai'GOtics  are  drugs  wliich  benumb  the  system,  relieve 
pain,  and  produce  sleep.  As  a  result  of  an  over-dose,  inseDsi- 
bility  and  death  may  result.  Hence,  such  drugs  are  powerful 
and  are  dangerous  when  taken  improperly.  Narcotics  benumb 
the  brain,  and  thus  produce  an  artificial  sleep  which  usually 
lacks  the  refreshing  qualities  of  natural  sleep,  being  often  fol- 
lowed by  a  stupid  condition  and  by  headache.  This  is  apt  to 
be  the  case  when  narcotics  are  taken  carelessly  and  improperly, 
and  without  a  physician's  advice. 

411.  The  narcotics  used  most  frequently  to  produce  sleep 
are  opium,  morphine,  and  chloral.  Tobacco  is  a  narcotic,  but  is 
not  used  to  produce  sleep.  Alcohol  is  a  narcotic  when  used  in 
large  amount ;  this  is  seen  in  a  very  pronoanced  manner  in  the 
heavy  sleep  which  occurs  in  dead  drunkenness.  In  some  per- 
sons, even  a  small  amount  of  alcoholic  drink  will  act  as  a  nar- 
cotic and  cause  drowsiness  ;  this  effect  is  seen  especially  after 
the  use  of  malt  liquors. 

TOBACCO. 

412.  The  tobacco -plant,  the  dried  leaves  of  wdiich  constitute 
tobacco,  was  originally  a  native  of  America,  but  is  now  culti- 
vated in  almost  every  part  of  the  woi^ld. 

413.  Origin  of  the  Name. — "Tobaco"  is  the  Indian 
name  for  the  pipe  in  which  the  leaves  were  smoked  ;  Europeans 
applied  it  to  the  plant  itself. 


194  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 

414.  History  of  Tobacco. — The  custom  of  smoking  and 
chewing  tobacco  had  been  prevalent  among  the  Indians  for  a 
long  time,  when  America  was  discovered.  In  1560,  Nicot,  the 
French  ambassador,  brought  some  of  it  to  France.  It  was  in- 
troduced into  England  in  1586  by  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  ;  before 
the  end  of  the  century,  its  use  had  spread  over  nearly  the  whole 
world. 


Fig.  75.— Tobacco  Plant. 

415.  Cultivation  and   Preparation  of  Tobacco. — The 

Cuban  leaf  is  the  best  in  the  world,  but  tobacco  grows  anywhere 
and  everywhere.  It  is  cultivated  in  every  State  of  the  Union, 
though  some  States  grow  much  more  than  others.  Virginia  pro- 
duces over  eighty  million  pounds,  and  Kentucky  over  one  hun- 
dred and  seventy  million  pounds  a  year.  The  jolant  reaches  the 
height  of  several  feet ;  it  lias  large,  spreading,  pale-green  leaves. 


NARCOTICS.  195 

416.  In  preparing  tobacco  for  use,  the  plant  is  cut  near  the 
ground  at  the  end  of  summer,  and  the  leaves  are  dried  on  the 
stems,  by  hanging  them  in  barns.  Then  they  are  afterward 
stripped  from  the  stems,  moistened,  and  tied  into  bundles. 
These  are  piled  up  for  a  number  of  weeks,  during  which  a  sort 
of  fermentation  goes  on  ;  this  brings  out  a  rich  brown  color 
and  develops  an  aroma.  Tobacco  is  then  rolled  to  form  cigars, 
or  cut  into  delicate  shreds  which  are  made  into  small  cylinders 
by  means  of  paper  or  tobacco  wrappers  to  make  cigarettes,  or 
chopped  more  or  less  fine  for  use  in  pipes,  or  ground  into  a  fine 
powder  for  snuff.  When  used  for  chewing,  it  is  mixed  with 
•sugar  or  molasses,  licorice,  and  other  ingredients,  and  packed 
in  paper  or  pressed  into  hard  pieces. 

417.  Composition  of  Tobacco. — A  large  proportion  of 
the  tobacco-leaf  consists  of  ashes.  Its  important  constituent  is 
a  very  poisonous  liquid,  which  readily  escapes  into  the  air  and 
which  at  first  is  colorless,  but  soon  turns  brown  ;  this  poison  is 
called  nicotine,  and  tobacco  contains  from  two  to  nine  per  cent. 
The  odor  and  aroma  of  tobacco  seems  to  depend  upon  an  oily 
or  fatty  substance,  called  oil  of  tobacco. 

418.  Effects  of  Tobacco  Upon  the  System. — The  ef- 
fects of  tobacco  upon  the  system  are  influenced  by  habit  and 
by  the  peculiarities  of  individuals.  There  is  a  great  difference 
between  the  effects  produced  at  first,  and  those  which  follow 
after  the  system  has  become  accustomed  to  it.  ^h.en  first  used, 
and  in  those  unaccustomed  to  it,  tobacco  produces  dizziness, 
headache,  perspiration,  sickness  at  the  stomach,  vomiting,  great 
weakness,  and  trembling. 

419.  After  a  time,  the  system  usually  becomes  accustomed 
to  its  use,  and  a  tolerance  is  established.  It  then  acts  as 
a  mild  narcotic,  leaving  a  sense  of  repose,  and  having  a 
quieting  effect  upon  the  body  and  mind.  But  this  soothing 
effect  is  not  produced  in  every  user  of  tobacco.  There  are 
many  persons  who  never  experience  it ;  and  quite  a  large 
number  are  made  very  uncomfortable  by  tobacco  in  any  form, 


196  Al^ATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AT^D   HYGIENE. 

even  in  the  smallest  quantities,  and  never  succeed  in  becoming 
accustomed  to  it,  or  in  deriving  any  comfort  or  satisfaction 
from  its  use. 

420.  Tobacco  as  a  Medicine. — Tobacco  is  now  no 
longer  used  as  a  medicine.  Formerly,  a  tobacco  poultice  was 
sometimes  applied  to  bruised  or  inflamed  parts  ;  but  this  use 
proved  objectionable  because  the  poisonous  part  of  the  drug 
was  taken  up  into  the  system  through  the  skin,  and  often  gave 
rise  to  serious  symptoms. 

421.  The  Tobacco  Habit. — The  fondness  for  tobacco  is 
an  acquired  habit.  At  first  it  is  probably  used  merely  from  a 
desire  to  imitate  ;  then  it  becomes  a  habit  and  soon  causes  a 
craving  which  is  satisfied  only  by  larger  and  larger  quantities. 
This  habit  does  not,  however,  become  as  firmly  rooted  as  the  al- 
cohol habit ;  nor  can  the  evils  resulting  fi'om  the  use  of  tobacco 
be  compared  with  those  caused  by  alcohol. 

422.  It  is  a  disputed  question  whether  the  use  of  tobacco  is 
ever  positively  beneficial.  Many  adults  seem  to  be  able  to  use 
tobacco  in  moderation,  without  any  apparent  ill  effects.  But  it 
is  also  quite  certain  that  a  great  many  individuals  are  injured 
by  it,  and  in  the  case  of  the  young,  it  is  unquestionably  a  p)oison 
which  may  cause  decided  injury. 

423.  Injurious  Effects  of  Tobacco  on  the  Adult. — 
Quite  a  number  of  adults  suffer  from  symptonjs  which  are 
directly  due  to  the  effects  of  tobacco  and  are  consequently 
evidences  of  tobacco  2)oisoning.  In  many  cases  such  symptoms 
are  slight,  but  in  many  others  they  are  serious  enough  to  de- 
mand the  discontinuance  of  the  use  of  tobacco  in  any  form. 
Tobacco  is  more  apt  to  produce  disagreeable  and  harmful  eflects 
wlien  used  upon  an  empty  stomach,  and  apf)ears  to  be  least  harm- 
ful when  indulged  in  just  after  a  hearty  meal.  The  poisonous 
effects  of  tobacco  may  show  themselves  in  loss  of  appetite  and 
indigestion,  in  the  throat,  the  lungs,  the  heart,  the  eye,  and  the 
nerves  ;  they  comprise  a  group  of  symptoms  of  very  common 
occurrence. 


KAECOTICS.  197 

424  Smokers'  Sore  Throat. — The  irritating  effect  of 
tobacco  smoke  often  causes  a  reddened,  raw  condition  of  the 
throat,  giving  rise  to  a  feehug  of  dryness  or  of  scratching,  and 
known  as  smokery's  sore  throat.  Tliis  irritation  may  extend  into 
the  bronchial  tubes  and  provoke  a  chronic  cough. 

425.  The  ajDpetite  may  suffer  and  attacks  of  indigestion  may 
occur ;  a  form  of  dyspepsia  may  be  set  up.  Periods  of  dizzi- 
7iess  and  oifaintness  occur  from  time  to  time  in  those  who  are 
unfavorably  affected  by  the  use  of  tobacco. 

426.  Tobacco  Heart. — Numbers  of  smokers  are  compelled 
to  give  up  the  habit  on  account  of  its  producing  what  is 
called  "tobacco  hea?^;"  this  is  a  nervous  derangement  of  the 
action  of  the  heart  showing  itself  in  fiuttering  and  palpitation, 
with  too  rapid  and  irregular  action. 

427.  Tobacco  Blindness. — As  a  result  of  tobacco  poison- 
ing, the  optic  nerve  is  sometimes  affected  and  a  form  of  blind- 
ness ensues.  This  gives  rise  to  the  same  symptoms  and  is 
caused  by  the  same  wasting  of  the  nerve  of  sight,  as  the  blind- 
ness from  the  alcohol  habit,  which  has  already  been  de- 
scribed. 

428.  Tobacco  Nervousness. — Nervousness  n,nd  trembling, 
frequently  quite  marked  and  noticeable,  are  often  the  con- 
sequences of  smoking. 

429.  Injurious  Effects  of  Tobacco  on  the  Young. — 
There  is  some  controversy  regarding  the  effects  of  the  moder- 
ate use  of  tobacco  upon  those  adults  who  appear  to  be  un- 
influenced by  it.  The  majority  of  authorities  admit  that 
many,  adults  can  use  tobacco  moderately  without  harm,  and 
that  others  who  are  susceptible  to  the  poisonous  effects  of  this 
agent  are  injured  by  it  in  different  ways  just  enumerated. 
But  even  those  who  contend  that  many  adults  are  not  injured 
by  the  moderate  use  of  tobacco,  are  unanimous  in  stamj^ing  it 
as  one  of  the  most  poisonous  and  injurious  practices,  when  in- 
dulged in  by  young  and  growing  persons. 

430.  It  checks  their  growth^  weakens  the  system,  and  impairs 


198  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE 


both  muscular  and  meMal  activity.  Of  this  there  can  be  7io 
doubt.  Some  of  tlie  States  have  very  wisely  passed  laws  for- 
bidding the  sale  of  tobacco  to  young  people. 

431.  Evils  of  Tobacco  on  the  Young. — The  Medical 
Record  of  New  York,  the  most  prominent  medical  journal  in 
the  United  States,  says  :  "  The  evils  of  tobacco  are  intensified 
a  hundred-fold  on  the  young.  Here  it  is  unqualifiedly  and 
uniformly  injurious.  It  stunts  the  growth,  poisons  the  heart, 
impairs  the  mental  powers,  and  cripples  the  individual  in  every 
way.  Not  that  it  does  this  to  every  youth,  but  it  may  be  safely 
asserted  that  no  boy  of  twelve  or  fourteen  can  begin  the  prac- 
tice of  smoking  without  becoming  physically  or  mentally 
injured  by  the  time  he  is  twenty-one.  Sewer-gas  is  bad 
enough,  but  a  boy  had  better  learn  his  Latin  over  a  man-trap 
than  get  the  habit  of  smoking  cigarettes." 

432.  Influence  of  Tobacco  upon  Muscular  Strength 
and  the  Power  of  Endurance. — What  has  been  said  of  the 
necessity  of  avoiding  alcohol  during  the  process  of  training 
applies  with  equal  force  to  tobacco.  No  athlete  is  allowed  to 
use  tobacco  in  any  form  during  the  preparation  for  running, 
jumping,  rowing,  or  other  similar  contests,  since  it  interferes 
with  the  fullest  development  of  muscular  strength  and  the 
power  of  endurance. 

433.  Cigarette  Smoking. — This  is  probably  ihe  most  in- 
jurious form  of  using  tobacco.  Cigarettes  are  usually  made  of 
the  very  poorest  stuff.  Being  common  and  cheap,  they  are 
brought  within  the  reacli  of  boys,  and  in  this  way  tobacco 
tempts  and  injures  the  young  in  the  most  insidious  manner. 
While  the  smoker  of  a  cigar  or  pipe  simply  draws  the  smoke 
into  the  mouth  and  then  expels  it,  the  cigarette  smoker  usu- 
ally inhales  it — that  is,  he  either  voluntarily  or  involuntarily 
draws  it  into  his  lungs.  Tliis  practice  is  not  only  irritating  to 
the  lungs,  but  it  enables  the  air-spaces  to  absorb  much  more  of 
the  poisonous  nicotine  than  when  the  smoke  is  simply  drawn 
into  the  mouth  and  then  pufted  out.     The  paper  with  which 


NARCOTICS.  199 

cigarettes  are  made  is  another  objectionable  feature,  its  smoke 
being /lars/i,  irritating,  and  jyoisonouH. 

434.  Other  Objections  to  the  Tobacco  Habit— The 
use  of  snuff  is  ^filthy  habit  which  is  not  as  prevalent  now  as  it 
used  to  be  ;  it  is  apt  to  injure  the  sense  of  smell  and  to  keep 
the  nose  and  throat  in  an  irritable  and  unhealthy  condition. 
Chewing  tobacco  is  a  disgusting  habit  which  makes  the  breath 
foul,  discolors  the  teeth,  and  is  accompanied  by  the  dirty  prac- 
tice of  spitting. 

435.  Even  under  the  most  favorable  circumstances  a  num- 
ber of  objections,  based  upon  abuse  of  the  sense  of  cleanliness, 
can  be  urged  against  smoking.  The  smell  of  tobacco- smoke 
becomes  stale  and  clings  to  the  hair  and  the  clothing.  The 
teeth,  and  frequently  the  fingers,  become  discolored.  The 
breath  cannot  be  sweet,  and  the  atmosphere  of  our  houses  is 
more  or  less  vitiated.  To  many  persons  the  smoke  of  tobacco 
is  offensive,  and  some  are  even  made  sick  by  it ;  smokers  are 
very  apt  to  forget  this  and  their  good  manners,  and  to  subject 
such  persons  to  great  annoyance. 

436.  Smoking  is  an  Expensive  Habit.— Smoking  is  a 
very  expensive  habit.  It  is  estimated  that  over  six  hundred 
million  dollars  are  annually  expended  for  tobacco  in  the  United 
States  ;  this  is  three-fifths  of  what  drink  costs,  and  twice  as 
much  as  is  spent  for  meat. 


OPIUM  AND  MORPHINE. 

437.  Opium. — Opium  is  the  dried  juice  of  the  unripe  fruit 
of  the  poppii  plant,  which  is  cultivated  in  many  parts  of  Asia 
and  especially  in  India.  To  obtain  it  the  unripe  capsule  or 
seed  vessel  is  cut  into,  so  as  to  allow  the  milky  juice  to  ooze 
out ;  the  next  morning  this  is  scraped  off,  placed  in  earthen 
vessels  to  harden  by  evaporation,  and  then  pressed  into  irregu- 
lar globular  masses,  known  as  opium. 


200 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 


438.  Physical  Properties  of  Opium  and  Morphine. — 

Opium  occurs  either  in  the  form  of  dark-brown,  sticky  masses, 
or  as  a  brown  powder.  It  has  a  peculiar  smell.  Its  most  im- 
portant active  principle  is  morphine,  which  is  extracted  by 
means  of  water,  and  forms  white  crystals.  Morphine  produces 
the  same  effects  as  opium ;  it  is,  however,  about  ten  times  as 


strong. 


Fig.  7«.— The  Oinum  Plant. 


439.  Opiates. — Any  medicine  which  contains  opium  or 
some  preparation  of  opium  is  known  as  an  opiate.  When  the 
soluble  parts  of  opium  are  dissolved  in  alcohol  and  water, 
laudanum,  is  formed  ;  this  is  its  most  common  fluid  preparation. 
Opium  mixed  with  ipecac  and  a  diluting  powder  constitutes 


NARCOTICS.  201 

Dover's  powder.  Paregoric,  another  fluid  preparation,  contains, 
besides  opium,  camphor,  anise,  and  other  ingredients.  It  is  a 
very  common  method  of  employing  an  opiate,  and  is  very  often 
carelessly  given  to  children, 

440.  Effects  of  Opium  and  Morphine. — Opium  is  a 
powerful  narcotic.  In  the  hands  of  physicians  of  skill  it  is  one 
of  the  most  useful  drugs  which  we  possess.  Whatever  is  true 
of  opium  is  also  true  of  morphine,  which  is  a  concentrated 
equivalent  of  opium  producing  the  same  effect  with  about  one- 
tenth  the  dose.  Opium  and  morphine  are  exceedingly  useful 
in  relieving  pain  and  restlessness,  and  in  promoting  sleep  ;  they 
quiet  the  system  and  control  spasms  and  convulsions  ;  there  is 
scarcely  any  part  of  the  body  which  cannot  be  favorably  acted 
upon  in  sickness  by  these  agents,  when  properly  and  carefully 
prescribed  by  a  competent  ph3^sician. 

441.  Opium  and  Morphine  Poisoning. — When  an  over- 
dose is  taken,  however,  they  act  as  powerful  narcotic  poisons.  A 
great  many  deaths  result  every  year  from  poisoning  by  opium 
and  morphine,  taken  intentionally  or  by  mistake,  probably  a 
greater  number  than  from  any  other  poison.  Infants  and  young 
children  are  much  more  easily  poisoned  than  older  beings. 
Some  persons  are  peculiarly  affected  by  opium  and  morphine, 
so  that  what  is  a  small  dose  for  one  may  prove  to  be  a  large 
dose  for  another ;  hence,  even  physicians  have  to  be  extremely 
careful  in  prescribing  this  very  useful  but  very  powerful  drug. 

442.  The  Opium  or  Morphine  Habit. — Everyone  has 
probably  heard  of  the  opium  habit,  or,  what  is  the  same  thing, 
the  morphine  habit.  It  is  a  habit  people  get  into  of  taking  these 
drugs  whether  they  need  them  or  not.  Morphine  and  opium 
take  away  pain  and  make  people  sleep  when  they  are  sick  and 
restless  ;  in  such  cases  they  do  a  great  deal  of  good.  But 
persons  who  have  the  morphine  or  opium  habit  do  not  take  the 
drug  for  this  purpose,  but  because  they  think  it  makes  them 
feel  good  for  the  time  being,  and  makes  them  forget  any  cares 
they  may  have.     After  the  effects  pass  off,  they  feel  miserable. 


202  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 

The  stomach  is  upset,  they  are  tired  and  nervous,  have  a  very 
bad  headache,  and  often  feel  like  vomiting.  They  feel  so  bad 
that  they  take  more  and  more,  until  finally  they  keep  under  the 
effects  of  it  all  the  time. 

443.  In  China,  this  habit  is  very  prevalent,  and  it  is  estimated 
that  over  three  million  Chinese  have  the  opium  habit.  The 
drug  is  imported  from  India  and  furnishes  a  great  source  of 
revenue  to  the  English.  In  this  country,  the  habit  is,  unfortu- 
nately, greatly  on  the  increase ;  half  a  million  persons  in  the 
United  States  have  the  ojnum  or  morphine  habit,  notwithstand- 
ing the  fact  that  it  is  forhiddea  by  law,  and  that  the  sale  of 
opium  or  morphine  is  not  legal  except  when  called  for  by  a 
physician's  prescription. 

444.  The  Pangs  of  the  Opium  and  the  Morphine 
Habit. — While  under  the  influence  of  opium  or  morphine,  the 
victim  is  in  a  sort  of  dreamy,  drowsy  condition,  forgetful  of  all 
surroundings.  As  soon  as  the  effects  of  the  drug  wear  off,  the 
wretched  being  is  left  in  a  frightful  condition.  He  is  entirely 
demoralized ;  he  suffers  from  severe  headaches  and  neuralgias  ; 
there  is  weakness,  irritabilit}',  and  restlessness ;  he  is  troubled 
and  frightened  and  has  a  feeling  of  intense  horror.  The  pangs 
of  this  j)eriod  of  awakening  are  said  to  cause  indescribable 
suffering,  and  craving  for  more  opium  and  morphine  becomes 
'perfect  torture.  He  cannot  rest  until  he  has  obtained  another 
dose.  He  will  do  anything — lie,  cheat,  or  steal — to  satisfy  this 
longing  by  securing  more  opium  or  niorphine.  Promises  to 
reform  are  broken,  and  the  firmest  resolves  count  for  nothing. 
The  wretched  prisoner  of  this  habit  has  lost  all  power  over  him^ 
self  and  all  controlling  influence  upon  his  moral  sense.  He  is 
rightfully  called  an  "opium  fend  "  or  a  "  morphine  fend."  He 
knows  and  appreciates  his  calamity  but  cannot  change  it.  The 
habit  is  one  which  is  much  more  difficult  to  break  up  than  is 
either  alcohol  or  tobacco. 

445.  Results  of  the  Opium  and  the  Morphine  Habit. 
— The  effects  of  the  opium  and  the  morphine  habit  upon  health 


NARCOTICS.  203 

early  show  themselves.  The  poor  wretch  soon  becomes 
nervous  ;  he  cannot  sleep  at  night ;  he  has  no  appetite  ;  if  he 
takes  any  food  he  cannot  digest  and  often  vomits  it ;  he 
becomes  thin  and  has  a  3'ellow  complexion  ;  his  mind  changes 
and  he  loses  his  memory  ;  he  has  no  longer  the  power  to  do 
right,  and  he  is  known  to  tell  lies  without  hesitation,  to  cheat, 
and  to  steal,  in  order  to  get  some  of  the  drug. 

446.  The  quantity  of  the  drug  which  it  is  necessary  to  take 
to  produce  the  desired  effect  constantly  becomes  greater  ; 
many  of  these  unfortunates  take  at  a  single  dose  an  amount 
which  would  be  sufficient  to  kill  twenty,  or  even. fifty  persons, 
who  are  unaccustomed  to  it. 

CHLORAL. 

447.  Chloral,  or  chloral  hydrate,  is  Avhite  in  color,  occurs  in 
flat  crystals,  and  is  soluble  in  water.  It  is  prescribed  quite  ex- 
tensively by  physicians  and  is  considered  a  valuable  remedy. 
It  is  given  to  quiet  the  nerves,  relieve  i^eHlessness,  to  take  away 
pain,  and  to  produce  sleep.  In  proper  cases,  when  prescribed 
by  the  doctor,  these  effects  give  it  a  prominent  -\)\'^cq  among 
useful  remedies.  But  unfortunately  this  drug  has  become  a 
source  of  evil. 

448.  The  Chloral  Habit. — People  sometimes  get  into  the 
habit  of  taking  this  medicine  regularly  for  its  peculiar  effects. 
It  may  have  been  prescribed  originally  by  the  family  physician 
who  intended  it  only  for  temporary  use.  But  tempted  by  its 
soothing  effect,  some  persons  continue  to  use  it,  and  to  get  into 
the  habit  of  taking  it  regularly  to  relieve  pain  or  to  produce 
sleep,  until  they  cannot  sleep  without  it.  They  have  then  ac- 
quired the  chloral  habit.  Though  not  as  prevalent  as  the  use 
of  morphine  or  opium,  it  is  nevertheless  a  dangerous  habit. 

449.  Like  alcohol  and  narcotics  in  general,  the  dose  neces- 
sary to  j^roduce  the  desired  result  constantly  becomes  larger 
and  larger,  and  the  longing  for  the  drug  steadily  increases. 
Many  persons  have  acquired  the  habit  in  trying  to  reheve  the 


204  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 

depressing  effects  of  tbe  alcohol  habit,  and  in  such  cases  they 
have  usually  merely  succeeded  in  becoming  the  victims  of  an 
additional  curse. 

450.  Effects  of  the  Chloral  Habit. — In  a  very  short 
time,  the  injurious  effects  of  this  drug  upon  the  system  show 
themselves.  The  victim  becomes  nervous,  weak,  and  very  much 
emaciated  ;  the  skin  is  pale  and  yellow,  he  loses  his  appetite 
and  acquires  a  dislike  for  food  ;  he  suffers  from  indigestion. 
Finally  he  becomes  a  complete p/i?/szca/,  mental,  and  moral  ivreck, 
perhaps  dying  in  a  hospital  from  weakness,  or  ending  his  days 
in  an  insane  asylum.  Very  often,  also,  he  takes  too  much  of 
the  drug  and  this  leads  to  a  fatal  end. 

ABSINTHE. 

451.  Absinthe  is  a  strong  alcoholic  drink  which  is  flavored 
with  oil  of  u^orniwood.  Its  effects  correspond  to  those  of  other 
alcoholic  liquors,  but  in  addition  the  wormwood  produces  very 
decided  and  poisonous  symptoms  showing  themselves  especially 
upon  the  nervous  system.  The  habit  of  consuming  large  quan- 
tities of  absinthe  is  prevalent  in  France,  but  of  late  years  this 
dangerous  habit  has  travelled  and  has  gathered  in  many  persons 
in  England  and  America,  and  it  seems  to  be  on  the  increase  in 
this  country.  In  addition  to  the  effects  of  the  alcohol,  absinthe 
produces  a  sort  of  unconsciousness  or  dreamy  state.  The  effects 
of  the  absinthe  habit  are  very  pronounced  and  lead  to  very  se- 
rious if/jury.  The  victim  loses  all  desire  for  food  and  suffers 
from  dyspepsia;  the  tongue  and  mouth  become  dry  and  the 
throat  irritable  ;  spasms  of  various  muscles  occur,  and  if  still 
persisted  in,  the  habit  causes  convulsions,  often  leading  to  pa- 
ralysis and  death. 

HASHISH. 

452.  Hashish,  an  extract  derived  from  Indian  hemp,  is  used 
as  a  narcotic  by  the  natives  of  India.  It  produces  a  drowsy 
condition  in  which  objects  are  seen,  but  seem  a  great  distance 


NAKCOTICS.  205 

off,  and  passed  events  are  recollected  as  though  they  had  oc- 
curred at  some  very  remote  period.  Though  still  used  by  many 
natives  of  India,  the  habit  does  not  seem  to  have  had  any  charm 
for  others.     It  is  rarely  met  with  in  this  country. 

CHLOROFORM. 

453.  Chloroform  is  a  remedy  of  incalculable  betie^t.  It  is  a 
colorless  fluid  having  a  pleasant  odor.  It  is  inhaled  like  ether 
for  the  purj^ose  of  producing  unconsciousness,  so  that  oj)erations 
upon  the  body  can  be  performed  without  causing  any  j)ain.  It 
is  also  used,  both  externally  and  internally,  for  the  relief  of 
pain  cind  spasm.  Occasionally,  we  find  individuals  who  have 
formed  the  habit  of  inhaling  chloroform  whenever  they  have  the 
slightest  pain  or  for  the  purpose  of  putting  them  to  sleep.  This 
practice  is  extremely  dangerous;  many  of  such  unfortunate 
persons  lose  their  lives  from  an  overdose.  Uiider  no  circum- 
stances can  chloroform  be  safely  used,  unless  given  by  a  phy- 
sician. 

SYNOPSIS. 

Narcotics — Benumb  the  system  ;  relieve  pain  ;  produce  sleep  ;  pow- 
erful and  dangerous.  Most  common  narcotics  are  opium, 
morphine,  and  chloral ;  also  alcohol  in  large  amount.  To- 
bacco is  a  mild  narcotic. 

Tobacco — The  dried  leaves  of  the  tobacco-plant. 

1.  Used  by  American  Indians  for  long  time  previous  to  landing 
of  Columbus. 

2.  Introduced  into  France  in  1560 ;  into  England,  by  Sir  Wal- 
ter Ealeigh,  in  1586. 

3.  Cultivated  in  the  United  States  and  in  every  other  part  of 
the  world. 

4.  The  leaf  must  be  prepared  for  use  by  drying,  moistening, 
and  fermenting,  to  bring  out  color  and  aroma.  . 

5.  Used  in    smoking  (cigars,  cigarettes,  pii3e),   chewing,   and 
snuffing. 

6.  Contains  a  poisonous  principle  called  nicotine,  and  another 
called  oil  of  tobacco. 


206  AKATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 

7.  Effects  upon  the  system  : 

1.  When   first    used — Dizziness,    headache,    perspiration, 
sickness  at  stomach,  vomiting,  faintness,  and  trembling. 

2.  After  a  time  tolerance  is  established. 

3.  Quieting  effect  and  sense  of  repose  in  some  persons.  . 

4.  On  other  persons,  no  effect,  or  disagreeable  effect. 

5.  No  longer  used  as  a  medicine. 

6.  Causes  smokers'  sore  throat. 

7.  Appetite  suffers,  dyspepsia,  indigestion. 

8.  Tobacco  heart. 

9.  Tobacco  blindness. 

10.  Tobacco  nervousness. 

11.  When  used  by  young  and  growing  persons  :  Checks 
growth,  weakens  system,  impairs  muscular  and  mental  activ- 
ity. 

12.  Diminishes  muscular  strength  and  power  of  endurance. 

8.  Cigarette  smoking  esjiecially  injurious. 

9.  Smoking  is  an  uncleanly  habit ;  hair  and  clothes  smell  of 
stale  smoke ;  breath  offensive  ;  teeth  soiled ;  smoke  is  offensive 
to  other  persons. 

10.  Chewing  and  snuffing  very  filthy. 

11.  The  use  of  tobacco  is  an  expensive  habit ;  over  six  hundred 
million  dollars  spent  annually  in  the  United  States. 

Opium  and  Morphine : 

1.  Opium  is  the  dried  juice  of  the  unripe  seed-vessel  of  the 
poppy-plant ;  comes  from  India  and  neighboring  countries  ;  oc- 
curs in  brownish  mass  or  powder  ;  powerful  narcotic  poison. 

2.  Morphine  is  extracted  from  opium ;  occurs  in  small,  white 
crystals ;  has  same  effects  as  opium  ;  is  about  ten  times  as  strong. 

3.  Opiates  :  Medicines  which  contain  opium. 

4.  Preparations  of  opium  :  Laudanum,  paregoric,  Dover's  pow- 
der. 

5.  Effects  of  opium  and  morphine  :  Relieve  pain  and  restless- 
ness ;  break  spasms  and  convulsions  ;  produce  sleep. 

6.  Useful  only  when  prescribed  by  a  physician. 

7.  Persons  often  acquire  the  habit  of  taking  opium  or  morphine  ; 
this  habit  is  very  injurious,  and  exceedingly  difficult  to  break  ;  the 
health  suffers  very  much  ;  the  poor  victims  endure  a  miserable 
existence. 


NARCOTICS.  207 

8.  Opium  and   morphine   poisoning ;    very  dangerous ;    often 
fatal. 
Chloral  or  Chloral  Hydrate  : 

1.  Occurs  in  white  crystals,  soluble  in  water. 

2.  Quiets  the  nerves,  relieves  restlessness,  takes  away  pain,  pro- 
duces sleep. 

3.  Useful  drug  when  prescribed  by  the  physician. 

4.  The  chloral  habit,  a  dangerous  habit  to  get  into,  of  taking 
the  drug  to  produce  sleep  ;  also  to  relieve  the  depressing  effects 
of  the  alcohol  habit. 

5.  Chloral  habit  causes  nervousness,  pale  and  yellow  com- 
plexion, weakness,  emaciation,  indigestion,  and  ends  in  comjjlete 
physical,  mental,  and  moral  wreck  ;  insanity. 

Absinthe — A  strong  alcoholic  drink,  flavored  with  oil  of  wormwood. 

1.  Effects  :  Those  of  alcohol,  and  in  addition,  poisonous  effects 
of  wormwood  upon  nervous  system. 

2.  Absinthe  habit  prevalent  in  France,  to  less  extent  also  in 
this  country. 

3.  Produces  sort  of  unconsciousness  or  dreamy  state. 

4  Absinthe  habit  results  in  serious  injury  to  health,  and  may 
lead  to  convulsions,  paralysis,  and  death. 

Hashish — An  extract  derived  from  Indian  hemp  ;  used  as  narcotic 
by  natives  of  India ;  not  used  in  this  country. 

Chloroform — A  fluid  having  j^leasant  odor ;  inhaled  like  ether  to 
produce  unconsciousness  so  that  operations  can  be  performed 
without  causing  pain  ;  occasionally  inhaled  from  habit  to  re- 
lieve pain  or  produce  sleep  ;  this  practice  very  dangerous. 


208  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 


QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  are  narcotics?  2.  Name  the  narcotics  most  frequently- 
used?  3.  What  is  the  effect  of  an  over-dose?  4.  Is  tobacco  a  nar- 
cotic ?  5.  When  does  alcohol  act  as  a  narcotic  ?  6.  What  is  to- 
bacco ?  7.  Where  does  it  grow  ?  8.  What  is  the  origin  of  the 
name  ?  9.  What  is  our  earliest  knowledge  of  tobacco  ?  10.  When 
and  by  whom  was  it  introduced  into  France?  11.  Into  Eng- 
land ?  12.  How  is  tobacco  prepared  ?  13.  In  what  different  ways  is 
it  used  ?  14.  What  is  the  composition  of  tobacco  ?  15.  What  are 
the  effects  upon  the  system  when  first  used  ?  16.  Do  these  effects 
always  continue?  17.  What  agreeable  effects  has  tobacco  upon 
some  persons  ?  18.  Does  it  have  such  agreeable  effects  upon  all 
l^ersons  ?  19.  Is  it  used  as  a  medicine?  20.  How  is  the  tobacco 
habit  acquired  ?  21.  Is  it  ever  positively  beneficial  to  adults  ? 
22.  Name  some  of  the  injurious  effects  upon  the  system  ?  23.  What 
is  smokers'  sore  throat  ?  24.  How  may  the  appetite  and  digestion 
suffer  from  tobacco  ?  25.  What  is  tobacco  heart  ?  26.  What  is  to- 
bacco blindness  ?  27.  What  is  tobacco  nervousness.  28.  What 
are  the  effects  of  tobacco  upon  young  and  growing  persons  ? 
29.  What  effect  has  it  upon  the  growth,  strength,  and  muscular  and 
mental  activity  of  young  people  ?  30.  What  influence  has  tobacco 
upon  muscular  strength  and  the  power  of  endurance  ?  31.  Why  is 
cigarette  smoking  especially  injurious  ?  32.  What  other  objections 
are  there  to  the  tobacco  habit?  33.  Illustrate  how  expensive  the  to- 
bacco habit  is  ?  34.  What  is  opium  ?  35  What  is  its  appearance  ? 
36.  Where  is  it  cultivated?  37.  What  is  morphine?  38.  From 
what  is  it  derived  ?  39.  What  are  opiates  ?  40.  What  is  laudanum  ? 
41.  What  is  paregoric  ?  42.  What  is  Dover's  powder  ?  43.  What 
are  the  effects  of  opium  and  morphine  ?  44.  For  what  purposes 
are  they  valuable  when  prescribed  by  the  physician  ?  45.  What 
happens  when  an  over- dose  is  taken  ?  46,  What  is  the  opium  habit  ? 
47.  What  is  the  morphine  habit  ?  48.  Is  the  opium  habit  common  ? 
49.  What  effect  has  it  ?  50.  Describe  the  horrors  of  this  habit. 
51.  What  is  an  "  opium  fiend  ?  "  52.  What  are  the  results  of  this 
habit  ?  53.  What  is  chloral  or  chloral  hydrate  ?  54.  For  what  is  it 
jn'escribed  by  physicians?  55.  What  are  its  physical  properties? 
56.  What  effect  has  it  upon  the  system  ?     57.  What  is  the  chloral 


NAEC0TIC8.  209 

habit?  58.  How  is  ifc  acquired?  59.  For  what  purpose  do  such 
persons  use  chloral  ?  60.  What  are  the  results  of  the  chloral  habit  ? 
61.  What  is  frequently  the  end  of  this  habit?  62.  What  is  ab- 
sinthe? 63.  What  are  its  effects  upon  the  system?  64.  What  is 
the  absinthe  habit  ?  65.  Where  does  it  exist  principally  ?  66.  What 
are  the  results  of  the  absinthe  habit  ?  67.  What  is  hashish  ? 
68.  By  whom  is  it  used  ?  69.  What  are  its  effects  ?  70.  What  is 
chloroform?  71.  What  are  its  physical  properties  ?  72.  What  are 
its  uses  ?  73.  What  is  the  chloroform  habit  ?  74.  Why  is  it  dan- 
gerous ? 


210  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 


Fig.  77.— General  View  of  the  Nervous  System  in  the  Human  Being. 


CHAPTER  XII. 
THE  NERVOUS   SYSTEM. 

454.  Thus  far  the  hony  framework  of  the  body  and  the 
muscles  which  cover  and  move  the  skeleton  have  been  spoken 
of.  The  food  and  drink  which  man  should  take  and  what  be- 
comes of  this  have  been  considered  ;  also  how  this  food  is  di- 
gested and  taken  up  by  the  blood,  forming  new  tissues.  The 
heart  and  the  blood-vessels  which  convey  the  blood  to  all  parts 
of  the  body  have  been  described.  The  lungs  and  breathing 
and  the  effects  of  pure  and  impure  air,  have  been  studied. 
Finally,  the  necessity  of  the  body's  having  and  keeiDing  a  cer- 
tain  warmth  has  been  spoken  of. 

455.  These  functions  are  found  in  all  animals,  but  they  are 
not  peculiar  to  animals  for  they  also  exist  in  plants.  The  word 
function  was  defined  to  be  the  woi^k  which  any  part  of  the 
body  does.  All  these  different  kinds  of  w^ork  that  we  have 
been  studying,  and  which  are  necessary  for  animal  life,  are  also 
found  in  plants. 

456.  Similarity  in  the  Structure  of  Plants  and  Ani- 
mals.— The  plant  has  a  framework  which  corresponds  to  our 
skeleton,  though  of  course  it  is  not  made  of  lime.  This  can 
often  be  seen  in  leaves  that  have  been  in  water  a  long  time  ;  the 
soft  parts  have  rotted  away,  leaving  the  stems  and  ribs  of  the 
leaf,  as  is  shown  in  Fig.  78.  In  plants  there  is  a  soft,  usually 
green  matter  to  clothe  this  skeleton.  Plants  take  in  food  and 
drink  by  their  roots  and  by  their  leaves.  They  also  breathe 
through  pores  in  their  leaves,  and  take  in  air  and  give  it  up  as 
animals  do.      But  from  the  air  they   take   in   the  poisonous 


212  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 

gases  and  give  up  pure  oxygen.  This  is  just  the  reverse 
of  what  animals  do.  It  may  be  well  to  explain  what  pores 
are.  They  are  the  very  small  openings  in  the  skin  or  in  the 
coverings  of  leaves  ;  and  are  usually 
too  small  to  be  seen  without  a  mi- 
croscope. 

457.  Then  again  plants  have  sap, 
which  serves  as  their  blood.  It  is 
not  of  a  red  color  as  blood  is,  but 
like  the  blood  in  animals,  it  car- 
ries the  nutritious  juices  to  the 
different  parts  of  the  plant.  There 
are  tubes  which  carry  the  sap, 
just  as  blood-vessels  do  the  blood. 
Finally,  plants  have  a  certain 
warmth  of  their  own,  just  as  ani- 
mals have  ;  not  so  great  as  in  ani- 
mals, but  if  many  plants  are  placed 
in  a  closed  room,  the  air  in  this 
room  after  a  time  becomes  com- 
paratively warm. 

/L'^9.        Ahconra      nf     Nprv oilQ       ^^^-  TO.— The  Skeleton  of  a  Leaf, 
^.JO.       MUbenoe      Ul      I'^eryuub    j^^^^^.  jong-continued  soaking  in  water, 

System    in    Plants.— Thus  it  will  the  soft  part  of  the  leaf  has  been  re- 

J  moved,    leaving    the    woody    portion 

be     seen     that    plants    have    all    the  forming  the  franiework,which  gives  the 

■••  leaf  its  shape  and  strength. 

parts  and  the  same  functions  that 

have  been  described  in  animals  thus  far.  But  now  will  be 
considered  certain  parts  in  animals  which  plants  do  not  possess, 
the  first  and  most  important  of  which  is  the  Nervous  System, 
Let  us  first  see  what  is  meant  by  the  word  system.  It  is  a 
collection  of  tissues  of  the  same  kind.  So  that  nervous  system 
is  a  collection  of  nerves,  or  in  other  words,  all  the  nerves  of 
the  body  taken  together  are  called  the  nervous  system ;  all 
the  arteries  taken  together  would  be  called  the  arterial  sys- 
tem. All  the  muscles  of  the  body  are  called  the  muscular  sys- 
tem. 


THE  NERVOUS   SYSTEiM.  213 

459.  Most    Perfect    Nervous   System    in    Man. — The 

nervous  system  is  something  peculiar  to  animals  and  does  not 
exist  in  plants.  In  animals  there  is  a  great  difference  in  regard 
to  how  perfect  this  nervous  system  is.  The  higher  the  form  of 
the  animal,  the  more  perfect  is  its  nervous  system.  Man  being 
the  highest  form  of  animal,  his  nervous  system  is  much  more 
develoj)ed  than  in  any  other  animal.  In  some  of  the  lowest 
animals  it  is  very  imperfect  indeed.  In  other  functions,  such 
as  respiration,  circulation,  and  digestion,  there  are  many  classes 
of  animals  which  are  the  equals  of  man  ;  but  in  the  development 
of  his  nervous  system  man  stands  far  ahead  of  all  others. 

460.  Function  of  the  Nervous  System. — The  nervous 
system  gives  us  information  of  the  condition  of  the  body  and 
of  what  is  going  on  around  us,  so  that  we  can  do  what  is  best 
and  avoid  danger.  It  is  also  the  work  of  the  nervous  system 
to  connect  the  different  organs  of  the  body  so  that  they  will  work 
in  harmony.  If  it  were  not  for  the  nervous  system  we  should 
constantly  be  in  danger  of  losing  our  lives.  It  enables  us  to 
feel,  think,  see,  hear,  etc.,  and  in  this  way  we  avoid  injury. 
When  a  large  number  of  persons  are  working  sei^arately  there 
must  always  be  a  head  or  chief  to  direct  them.  Imagine  wdiat 
disorder  there  would  be  in  the  class-room  if  every  pupil  did  as 
he  or  she  wished  and  there  were  no  teacher.  Think  of  an  army 
of  soldiers  over  which  there  was  no  general,  and  every  soldier 
did  as  he  wished  ;  how  dreadful  the  confusion  would  be  !  In 
the  same  way  there  would  be  great  disorder  among  the  oi'gans 
of  our  bodies  if  there  was  not  something  to  connect  them 
and  to  direct  their  work  ;  this  is  done  through  the  nervous 
system. 

461.  Divisions  of  the  Nervous  System. — We  can  divide 
the  nervous  system  into  certain  parts,  and  these  parts  are  all 
connected.     We  separate  them  only  for  the  purpose  of  study. 

462.  There  is  first  the  6?mn,  the  head  or  chief  that  superin- 
tends the  entire  work  of  the  system,  just  as  the  superintendent 
of  a  railroad  manages  the  running  of  all  the  trains.     The  brain 


214  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 

is  placed  in  a  rounded,  bony  box  made  by  the   bones  of  the 
skull,  called  the  cranium. 

463.  Next  there  is  the  spinal  coj'd,  which  is  still  very  im- 
portant, though  not  so  important  as  the  brain.  It  is  a  sort  of 
assistant  to  the  brain,  relieving  it  of  a  good  deal  of  work,  and 
also  doing  some  work  which  the  brain  does  not  do.  The  spinal 
cord  runs  in  the  canal  or  tunnel  which  is  in  the  back  part  of 
the  spinal  vertebrae. 

464.  Finally,  there  are  the  nerves.  These  are  sent  out  from 
the  brain  and  from  the  spinal  cord  to  different  parts  of  the 
body  ;  and  they  also  run  in  the  opposite  direction — from  the 
various  parts  of  the  body  to  the  brain  and  spinal  cord.  They 
are  the  messengers,  or  the  telegraph  wires,  so  to  speak,  which 
carry  the  wishes  of  the  brain  to  the  different  parts  of  the  body  ; 
and  they  also  carry  messages  from  the  different  parts  of  the 
body  to  the  brain.  These  different  parts  of  the  nervous  system 
are  illustrated  in  Figs.  77  and  83. 

465.  Examples  of  the  Action  of  the  Nervous  System. 
— The  uses  of  the  nervous  system  can  best  be  understood  by  a 
few  examples.  Suppose  a  man  is  walking  along  the  street  and 
is  about  to  cross  the  car-track.  His  ear  hears  the  jingle  of  the 
bells  and  by  means  of  a  nerve  sends  a  message  to  the  brain  ; 
the  brain  then  sends  an  order  along  the  nerves  of  the  eyes  to 
these  organs  to  look  in  the  direction  in  which  the  ear  has  heard 
the  sound  and  to  see  whether  a  car  is  approaching.  The  eyes 
obey  the  orders  of  the  brain  and  look  and  see  the  car  very  near, 
and  also  perceive  that  the  person  is  in  danger  of  being  run 
over.  They  immediately  send  back  word  to  the  brain  about 
this  danger.  Then  the  brain  sends  word  to  the  muscles  which 
move  his  legs  ;  this  message  is  also  transmitted  by  nerves  ;  it 
tells  these  muscles  to  act  immediately.  The  result  is  that  they 
obey ;  he  quickens  his  steps  and  thus  escapes  the  coming 
car. 

466.  Let  us  take  another  example.  Suppose  it  is  time  for 
the  noon  recess ;  you  have  taken  your  breakfast  early  in  the 


Tllli:   NERVOUS   SYSTEM.  215 

moruiug  and  Lave  had  no  food  since.  Tlie  stomach  sends  a 
message  to  the  brain  that  it  has  been  empty  for  some  time ; 
and  the  tissues  also  send  messages  by  numerous  nerves  that 
they  would  like  more  nourishment  since  they  have  exhausted 
all  that  the  blood  had  to  give  them.  Upon  receiving  these 
messages,  which,  in  short,  mean  that  you  are  hungry,  the  brain 
gives  out  its  orders.  It  directs  the  legs  to  carry  you  home  as 
soon  as  school  is  dismissed  ;  it  directs  them  to  take  you  to 
the  dining-room  and  to  seat  you  at  the  table  ;  it  directs  the 
eyes  to  look  at  the  food  and  see  whether  it  is  wholesome  ;  it 
orders  the  hands  to  seize  knife  and  fork  and  to  convey  food 
to  the  mouth ;  the  jaws  are  directed  to  chew  it,  the  throat 
to  swallow  it  and  the  stomach  to  digest  it.  All  this  the  brain 
does. 

467.  Rapidity  of  Action  of  the  Nervous  System.— It 
has  taken  a  little  while  to  describe  these  two  examples  of  the 
manner  in  which  the  nervous  system  acts,  but  it  must  not  be 
imagined  from  this  that  so  much  time  is  consumed.  All  these 
messages  are  sent  back  and  forth  with  lightning-like  rapidity, 
and  it  takes  only  a  ver}"-  small  part  of  a  second  for  a  message  to 
travel  from  the  tip  of  the  finger  to  the  brain  and  back  again. 

THE  BRAIN. 

468.  Coverings, — The  brain  is  a  large,  rounded  mass  of 
soft  nervous  tissue  which  is  contained  in  the  oval  box  of  bones 
formed  by  the  skull.  These  flat  bones  which  cover  it  protect 
it  from  injury.  Besides  these,  it  is  covered  on  the  inside  of  the 
skull  by  three  membranes  or  sheets  of  tissue  ;  and  it  is  therefore 
very  well  protected. 

469.  Size  and  Weight  of  the  Brain. — The  brain  is  about 
eight  inches  long.  If  looked  at  from  above  (Fig.  79)  it  appears 
hemispherical ;  if  viewed  on  its  under  surface  (Fig.  80)  it  is  flat. 
It  weighs  about  forty-seven  ounces — about  three  pounds  on  the 
average.     The  brain  of  a  man  is  larger  and  weighs  more  than 


216 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 


that  of  a  woman.  It  was  formerly  thought  that  highly  educated 
persons  had  very  heavy  brains,  but  this  is  not  so  in  every  case. 
It  is  true  in  certain  cases,  however,  for  the  brain  of  Daniel 
Webster  weighed  sixty-three  ounces.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
brain  of   Gambetta,  who  was    one  of  the  brightest  statesmen 


Fig.  79.— The  Brain,  Upper  Surface. 


France  ever  had,  was  said  to  weigh  only  thirty-five  ounces.  So 
that  there  are  exceptions  to  this  opinion.  However,  the  brains 
of  idiots  are  always  small  and  light  in  weight.  It  will  be  ex- 
plained further  on  in  what  way  the  brain  of  a  very  intelligent 
man  difters  from  that  of  an  idiot.  The  human  brain  is  heavier 
than  that  of  any  other  animal  except  the  whale  and  the  ele- 
phant. 


THE   NEMVOUS   SYSTEM. 


217 


470.  Divisions  of  the  Brain. ^ — The  brain  is  divided  into 
three  parts  :  First,  the  Large,  round  mass  called  the  cerebrum, 
which  you  see  when  you  look  at  it  from  above,  and  which 
forms  about  seven-eighths  of  the  entire  brain  (Figs.  79,  80, 
81,  and  8:3). 


Fig.  80. — The  Brain,  Lower  Surface. 


471.  Then  beneath  the  cerebrum,  at  the  back  part,  is  the 
cei^ehellum,  or  little  brain,  a  smaller  portion,  looking  like  two 
pouches,  and  forming  only  one-eighth  of  the  entire  brain  (Figs. 
80,  81,  and  83). 

472.  Third,  there  is  the  portion,  called  the  medulla,  which  is 
a  sort  of  bridge  between  the  brain  and  spinal  cord  (Figs.  81 
and  83). 


218 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 


473.  The  Cerebrum. — As  already  stated,  this  is  the  main 
part  of  the  brain.  If  you  look  at  it  from  above  you  will  see 
that  it  dips  in  along  the  centre,  and  you  will  find  this  cleft 
to  be  quite  deep,  separating  the  brain  into  two  halves,  called 
the  hemisphei'es — a  very  appropriate  name.  The  surface  of  the 
cerebrum  is  very  uneven,  due  to  the  fact  that  it  is  covered  by 
a  great  many  winding  elevations,  between  which   the  surface 


Fig.  81.— The  Brain,  Looked  at  from  the  Side,  Showing  Very  Nicely  the  Divisions  of  the 
Brain.  The  large  mass  above  is  the  cerebrum;  the  smaller  portion,  below  and  behind,  is 
the  cerebellum.  From  the  cerebrum  above,  a  cylindrical  portion  is  seen  passing  directly 
downward  to  the  end  of  the  illustration  below  ;  this  is  the  medulla.  The  cerebellum  is  seen 
to  be  connected  with  its  upper  ajid  back  part. 


dips  in  about  an  inch.  In  a  person  whose  brain  is  very  much 
developed  and  who  is  very  bright,  these  elevations  are  very 
windinjr  and  coniDlex,  and  between  them  the  brain  matter  dips 
in  very  much ;  while  in  the  lower  animals  the  elevations  are 
quite  straight  and  simple,  and  there  is  very  little  dipping  in 
between  them. 

474  Gray  and  White  Parts  of  the  Cerebrum.— On  the 
outside  the  cerebrum  is  gray,  but  internally  it  is  white.     The 


THE  NERVOUS   SYSTEM. 


219 


gray  jjart  consists  of  cells,  that  is,  small  bodies  with  a  number 
of  branches  given  off  from  them,  which  connect  with  the  nerve- 
fibres.     The  interior  of  the  cerebrum  is  white,  and  is  formed 

by  millions  of  nerve-fibres  (Fig. 

82). 

475.  The  Cerebellum. — 
Tiiis,  like  the  cerebrum,  is  gray 
on  the  outside  and  white  within. 
It  is  much  smaller  than  the  ce- 
rebrum, and  is  placed  behind 
and  below  it,  being  covered  up 
by  it  (Figs.  81  and  83). 

476.  The  Medulla  (Figs.  81 
and  83)  serves  to  connect  the 
brain  with  the  spinal  cord.  It 
is  very  important.  There  is  one 
part  of  it  to  wdiich  any  injury 
will  produce  instant  death. 

477.  The  Cranial  Nerves. 
—"What  is  a  nerve  ?  A  nerve 
is  a  collection  of  nerve-fibres 
forming  a  small  cord.  These 
nerve-fibres  are  very  small,  and 

can  be  seen  only  with  the  microscope.  But  when  a  great  many 
of  them  run  alongside  of  each  other  they  are  joined  into  a 
bundle,  and  this  w^e  call  a  ner^ve.  Some  nerves  are  very  large 
and  others  quite  small.  At  the  ends,  where  they  pass  to  the 
tissues,  they  are  very  small  indeed. 

478.  The  b?^ain  gives  off  twelve  sets  of  nerves,  and  these  all 
pass  to  the  tissues  of  the  head  and  face.  They  are  important, 
for  among  them  are  the  nerves  of  smell,  taste,  sight,  and  hear- 
ing. There  are  small  holes  in  the  bones  of  the  skull  by  which 
these  nerves  pass  out.  It  has  already  been  stated  that  the 
cranium  is  the  bony  box  in  which  the  brain  is  contained  ; 
hence  these  nerves  are  called  cranial,  because  they  come  from 


Fig.  82.— a  Portion  of  the  Cerebrum 
Cut  Across,  Showing  the  Gray  Border  ou 
the  Outside  and  the  White  Matter  Within. 


220  AKATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE 


,       a^  ^i  AK^^v^o^v^vji  ^  , 


this  bony  box.  They  are  arranged  in  pairs,  one  behind  the 
other  ;  on  which  account  they  are  often  called  in  numerical 
order,  first,  second,  third,  etc. 

479.  Functions  of  the  Brain.— The  brain  is  the  seat  of  the 
mind,  of  the  ivUl,  of  thought,  of  memory,  and  of  intelligence.  It 
is  through  the  brain  that  we  are  rendered  superior  to  the  lower 
animals.  The  lower  animals  accomplish  different  actions 
through  what  we  call  instinct,  that  is,  without  the  action  of 
the  mind.  But  we  can  do  many  more  things  than  they,  and 
more  difficult  acts,  because  our  brains  are  more  developed. 

480.  Let  us  examine  the  work  of  the  brain  and  see  what  it 
does  for  us  :  In  the  first  place,  it  is  where  the  will  exists  ;  it  is 
where  our  desires  come  from.  Then  as  to  memory,  it  is  the 
brain  which  enables  us  to  think  about  things  and  to  remember 
names,  figures,  faces,  and  all  other  things.  Imagine  how  useful 
this  is  and  how  difficult  it  would  be  to  get  along  without  it ! 
Think  also  of  the  wonderful  action  of  the  brain  when  it  is  pos- 
sible to  remember  things  all  our  lives  ! 

481.  The  brain  gives  us  reason,  so  that  when  we  see  a  thing 
we  know  what  it  means  and  whether  it  is  important  or  not.  It 
gives  us  judgment  which  enables  us  to  do  the  right  thing  in 
order  to  accomplish  what  we  want. 

482.  Intelligence  has  its  seat  in  the  brain.  This  prevents 
us  from  being  stupid ;  and  enables  us  to  understand  things  and 
to  express  ourselves  just  as  we  wish  by  language.  It  enables 
us  to  see  the  difference  between  right  and  wrong,  so  as  to  avoid 
the  latter. 

483.  Training  of  the  Brain. — Much  of  our  memory  and 
intelligence  depends  upon  the  way  in  which  our  brain  is  trained. 
If  we  use  our  brain  a  great  deal,  it  will  become  better  than  if 
we  allow  it  to  remain  idle.  Many  things  which  we  study  at 
school  are  taught  us  for  the  purjDose  of  training  the  brain.  We 
should  remember  that  we  cannot  think  of  more  than  one  thing 
at  a  time.  When  you  study  your  lessons,  you  should  not  think 
of  play  ;  and  when  you  play,  you  should  enjoy  yourself,  and 


THE    NKKVOUS   SYSTEM. 


221 


Cfrehruin.-/ 


CerfhBlf.u>n---'i  ---^^i^,' 


T//i/,.cr  Efirelnily 
fif  S/ii>vxl  Cord 


.•  _,\_  _  ist  Dorsal 

'         ':     .1\      Vft-tebrc. 


■mA 


■-\--  Isf:  Lumbu)- 

Lo'^ievKxh-finitu  - -i -'---j-sSii^      \  »: 

0/ >Vhinul  Curd-   '      \         J^S.    j 


/  M^yi\kM-^'-"-"^'^ 


v\  •  •-■ 


Via.  83.~The  Brain  and  Spinal  Cord,  with  the  Spinal  Nerves  Issuing  from  the  Latter. 


222  AXATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 

need  not  think  of  your  studies.     There  is  a  time  for  play  and  a 
time  for  study. 


THE  SPINAL   CORD. 


484.  The  spinal  cord  is  the  soft  bar  of  nerve-tissue  which 
runs  down  from  the  brain  through  the  canal  of  the  backbone. 
In  adults  it  is  about  as  thick  as  the  thumb.  Besides  being 
protected  by  bone ,  it  has,  like  the  brain,  a  covering  of  tJu^ee 
membranes.  While  the  spinal  cord  is  not  so  important  a 
part  of  the  nervous  system  as  the  brain  is,  it  is  still  very 
important,  especially  that  part  which  runs  through  the  neck. 
One  sometimes  hears  of  people  falling  down  stairs  and  break- 
ing their  neck.  "What  is  meant  by  this  is  that  this  upper 
part  of  the  s^^inal  cord  is  broken  across  and  death  occurs  im- 
mediately. 

485.  If  the  sj^inal  cord  be  sliced  crosswise  it  would  be  seen 
that  although  it  is  white  on  the  outside,  it  is  gray  on  the  in-' 
side.  This  gray  matter  in  the  ^-r—  ^~h-iJ 
interior  is  arranged  in  a  pe- 
culiar manner,  resembling  two  M- 
crescents  joined  together,  as  is  C 
shown  in  Fig.  84.  As  in  the 
brain,  this  gray  part  is  formed  v 
of  cells,  while  the  white  portion 
consists  of  nerve-fibres. 

486.  Spinal  Nerves.-The  ^^^  ^^ _^ ^^^.^.^^  ^^  ^^^  ^^^.^^^  ^^^^ 
nerves  which  leave  the  brain  are   CutAcios^.  showing  the  Gray  crescents  m 

the   Interior,    Surrounded  by   the   Wliite 

called  cranial  nerves ;  and  those  Nerve  Material, 
which  leave  the  sj)inal  cord  are  called,  in  the  same  way,  spinal 
nerves.  There  are  thirty-one  pairs  of  spinal  nerves  ;  and  they 
are  connected  to  the  side  of  the  spinal  cord  in  a  line.  Each 
nerve  when  it  leaves  the  spinal  cord  consists  of  two  parts, 
one  in  front  and  the  other  behind  ;  but  these  two  portions 
soon  unite  to  form  a  single  nerve. 


THE  NERVOUS   SYSTEM, 


223 


487.  Kinds  of  Nerves. — There  are  two  kinds  of  nerves — 
the  nerves  of  sensation  and  the  nerves  of  motion.  The  nerves 
of  sensation  are  those  which  give  feeling  to  different 
parts  of  the  body  and  especially  to  the  skin.  When 
you  cut  or  burn  yourself  it  is  a  nerve  of  sensation 
which  carries  the  message  of  pain  to  the  brain. 
The  nerves  of  motion  are  those  nerves  which  go  to 
the  different  muscles  and  cause  them  to  act  when 
the  brain  wishes  it. 

488.  Functions  of  the  Spinal  Cord.— The 
spinal  cord  is  a  sort  of  agent  or  assistant  to  the  hrain, 
and  it  also  serves  to  carry  the  large  number  of 
nerve-fibres  which  leave  the  brain,  travel  throuoh 
the  sj^iual  cord  and  then  to  the  limbs.  Bat  besides 
this,  the  spinal  cord  has  a  very  important  use. 
When  the  brain  is  engaged  at  something  else,  the 

\^    sj^inal  cord  takes  its  place,  and  acts  for  it  if  any  oc- 
casion arises. 

489.  Reflex  Action. — This  action  without  the 
islv^e,  ^  v7ry  knowledge  of  the  brain  is  called  reflex  action,  and 
Sffed^f  shm?-  ^^  ^^  ^^®  spinal  cord  which  carries  it  out.  Let  us 
lifd^^up'^Jf  ^^^^  ^  ^^^  examples  of  reflex  action  :  Suppose  you 
Nerve-fibres^^  waut  to  go  to  school  iu  tlic  moming.     Your  brain 

directs  the  muscles  of  your  lower  limbs  to  move  in 
such  a  manner  that  you  walk.  But  after  you  have  started 
walking,  you  do  not  need  to  think  about  it ;  perhaps  you  reach 
school  and  have  crossed  many  streets  and  have  turned  many 
corners  without  knowing  it.  It  was  the  spinal  cord  which 
looked  out  for  all  this. 

490.  If  a  fly  alights  upon  your  face,  you  put  up  jouv  hand 
to  brush  it  oft^  without  really  thinking  of  it.  This  is  another 
example. 

491.  During  sleep,  reflex  action  is  shown  ver}'-  well.  If  you 
tickle  the  feet  of  anyone  who  is  asleep,  he  will  draw  up  his 
lower  limbs  so  as  to  di-aw  them  away  ;  all  of  which  will  be  done 


224  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 

without  his  waking.  It  is  the  spinal  cord  which  looks  after  this. 
In  the  same  way,  if  you  walk  along,  thinking  of  something  else, 
and  suddenly  some  one  appears  before  you  and  makes  a  motion 
as  though  to  strike  you,  you  will  draw  up  your  arm  to  protect 
yourself  before  you  can  realize  that  anyone  is  there.  If  some 
one  makes  believe  striking  you  in  the  face,  you  cannot  help 
closing  your  eyes,  and  you  cannot  keep  them  open  even  if  you 
want  to.  This  is  reflex  action.  It  is  also  reflex  action  which 
explains  how  it  is  that  a  chicken  can  run  around  after  its  head 
is  chopped  oft'. 

492.  Sleep. — Slee-p  is  the  natural  rest  of  the  brain.  Just  as 
every  other  part  of  the  body  needs  rest  during  each  twenty-four 
hours,  so  does  the  brain.  In  fact,  many  other  parts  of  the  body 
can  exist  longer  without  rest  than  can  the  brain.  We  may 
rest  any  other  part  of  the  body  without  sleep  ;  but  the  only 
sign  that  the  brain  is  resting  completely,  and  is  not  active,  is 
sleep. 

493.  The  Amount  of  Sleep  which  is  necessary  varies 
with  different  people.  Men  who  think  a  great  deal  require 
more  than  those  who  do  bodily  work.  The  average  sleep  neces- 
sary for  a  man  is  from  seven  to  eight  hours. 

494.  Children  require  more  Sleep  and  should  have 
nine  or  ten  hours,  for  while  the  body  is  growing  rapidly  more 
rest  is  needed. 

495.  Uses  of  Sleep. — During  sleep  the  brain  and  all  other 
parts  of  the  body  rest  and  regain  the  strength  which  they  have 
lost  by  the  day's  work. 

496.  Time  for  Sleep. — Night  is  the  time  for  sleep.  Per- 
sons who  work  at  night  and  sleep  by  day  are  not  usualW  quite 
so  bright  and  healthy  as  those  who  sleep  during  the  natural 
time.  Young  people  who  dance  all  night  and  then  sleep  by 
day  to  make  up  for  it,  soon  look  pale  and  tired  out,  and  often 
weaken  their  bodies  so  much  that  they  become  sick.  The 
proper  time  for  children  to  go  to  bed  is  from  eight  to  nine 
o'clock,  and  they  should  then  rise  at  six  or  seven. 


THE   NERVOUS   SYSTEM.  225 

407.  Nervousness. — We  often  hear  peoi^le  say  they  are 
nervous.  13y  this  they  mean  that  their  nervous  system  is  out 
of  order.  Tliey  start  at  the  least  noise,  and  become  cross  and 
irritable,  while  the  rest  of  the  body  suffers.  Nervousness  is 
often  due  to  too  little  sleep  or  too  much  excitement.  Very 
often,  too,  it  is  due  to  indigestion,  or  to  coffee,  tea,  or  tobacco, 
or  alcoholic  drinks.  When  we  are  nervous  we  are  apt  to  do 
things  in  haste,  and  are  apt  to  talk  in  a  cross  manner  and  to  get 
angry  easily. 

498.  Wakefulness.— When  unable  to  sleep  at  night,  we  are 
said  to  suffer  from  sleeplessness  or  wakefulness.  Lying  awake 
at  night  when  all  is  quiet  and  everyone  else  is  asleej:)  is  very 
annoying.  Not  only  does  the  body  remain  tired  after  the  day's 
work,  but  the  person  becomes  worried  and  cross  because  he 
cannot  sleep.  There  are,  of  course,  many  causes  of  sleepless- 
ness, but  some  of  the  most  common  are  laziness,  coffee,  tea,  and 
tobacco.  It  is  quite  natural  for  us  to  feel  somewhat  tired  at 
night,  and  then  we  have  no  trouble  in  falling  asleep  ;  but  if  we 
are  idle  all  day  long,  we  do  not  feel  tired,  and  on  this  account 
we  may  find  it  hard  to  fall  asleep.  Coffee,  tea,  and  tobacco  ex- 
cite the  nervous  system,  and  on  this  account  may  prevent  sleep. 

41)'J.  Effects  of  Alcohol  upon  the  Nervous  System.— 
The  nervous  system  has  no  greater  enemy  than  alcohol.  Every 
part  of  the  nervous  system — the  brain,  the  spinal  cord,  and  the 
nerves — suffers  when  a  quantity  of  alcoholic  drink  is  taken. 
The  brain  becomes  affected  very  soon.  If  a  large  quantity  is 
taken  at  one  time  and  the  person  becomes  intoxicated,  he  be- 
comes stvipid  in  his  intelligence,  but  excited  in  other  ways — he 
sings,  or  cries,  or  begins  to  laugh  like  a  fool,  or  begins  to  scold, 
and  often  fights.  He  forgets  that  he  is  a  human  being  and  acts 
like  a  brute.  He  is  unable  to  walk  straio^ht  and  stao^ers  alon^r 
in  a  pitiable  way,  catching  on  to  lamp-posts  or  any  other  place 
for  support.  The  effect  upon  the  nerves  is  shown  by  the  way 
every  part  of  his  body  trembles,  and  by  his  great  unsteadiness. 
A  drunken  man  is  a  disgusting  sight !     If  his  drunkenness  be 


226  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 

repeated  many  times  and  becomes  a  habit,  the  memory  begins 
to  fail,  the  person  becomes  bloated  and  fat,  but  very  weak,  his 
health  fails,  his  hands  tremble,  his  eyes  and  nose  are  constantly 
bloodshot,  he  becomes  dirty  and  careless,  and  the  individual 
changes  into  a  good-for-nothing. 

500.  Delirium  Tremens, — As  a  result  of  drunkenness 
there  is  often  produced  a  disease  of  the  nerves  called  delirium 
tremens.  This  means  that  the  person  is  out  of  his  mind  and 
has  trembling  of  the  body.  It  is  a  condition  which  kills  many 
men,  and  which  is  dangerous  to  the  drunkard,  because  he  gets 
out  of  his  mind  and  tries  to  do  all  sorts  of  violent  things,  espe- 
cially to  jump  out  of  the  window.  He  imagines  that  he  sees 
animals,  such  as  mice,  rats,  and  snakes,  and  he  thinks  these  are 
chasing  him,  and  he  wants  to  run  away.  It  is  difficult  to  keep 
him  quiet.  The  whole  body  trembles  froin  the  poisonous  ef- 
fects of  the  alcohol.  The  heart  is  often  weakened  so  much 
that  the  person  dies  because  this  organ  has  become  too  weak. 

501.  Effects  of  Tobacco  upon  the  Nervous  System. — 
This  shows  itself  chiefly  by  the  trembling  hands  and  the  ner- 
vousness which  we  often  notice  in  people  who  smoke  a  great 
deal.  Many  persons,  especially  young  men,  cannot  smoke  at  all 
without  nervousness. 

502.  Effects  of  Coffee  and  Tea  upon  the  Nervous 
System. — Coffee  and  tea  excite  the  nervous  system.  They 
are  often  the  cause  of  nervousness  and  trembling ;  also  of  pal- 
pitation of  the  heart,  which  is  a  form  of  nervousness.  Children 
should  not  drink  coffee  or  tea,  as  they  do  not  need  any  stimu- 
lants. 

503.  The  Sympathetic  System  of  Nerves. — Besides  the 
great  nervous  system  to  which  this  chapter  has  been  devoted, 
there  is  a  smaller  collection  of  nerves,  which  is  known  as  the 
sympathetic  sijstem.  Along  the  front  of  the  backbone  are  found 
two  nerves,  with  many  knob-like  enlargements  at  numerous 
points.  This  is  the  central  part  of  the  sympathetic  system, 
from  which  the  branches  of  this  system  are  given  off.     Unlike 


THE   NERVOUS   SYSTEM.  227 

the  nerves  of  the  general  nervous  system,  which  pass  to  the 
outside  of  the  body  and  to  parts  which  are  subject  to  our  will, 
the  branches  of  the  sympathetic  system  pass  to  the  internal 
organs  which  cannot  be  controlled  by  our  will,  and  which  are 
therefore  called  involuntary.  The  sympathetic  system  serves 
to  connect  the  internal  organs  so  as  to  make  them  act  in  har- 
mony. 

SYNOPSIS. 

The  Nervous  System  : 

1.  Present  in  animals,  but  not  in  plants. 

2.  Functions : 

a.  To  give  information  in  regard  to  the  condition  of  va- 
rious parts  of  the  body. 

b.  To  give  information  of  what  is  going  on  around  us,  so 
that  we  can  act  accordingly,  and  can  avoid  danger. 

c.  To  connect  the  different  organs  of  the  body,  so  that 
they  can  act  in  harmony. 

3.  Divisions : 

a.  The  general  nervous  system ;   nerves  passing  to  ex- 
ternal parts,  and  those  controlled  by  our  will. 

h.  The  sympathetic  nervous  system ;  main  part  arranged 
in  two  chains,  with  knob-like  enlargements  along  the  front 
of  the  vertebral  column ;  from  these  branches  are  given 
off;  branches  pass  to  internal  organs  which  are  not  under 
control  of  the  will — involuntary. 
The  General  Nervous  System : 
Divisions  : 

A.  Brain: 

1.  Coverings : 

a.  Membranes. 

h.  Bones  forming  cranium. 

2.  Shape — hemispherical. 

3.  Size — about  eight  inches  long. 

4.  Weight — a.  Average  about  forty-seven  ounces. 

b.  Heavier  in  man  than  in  woman. 

c.  Very  light  in  idiots. 


228  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 

d.  Weighs  more  in  man  than  in  any  other  ani- 
mal, except  the  whale  and  elephant. 

e.  In  some  cases,  weight  is  proportionate  to  in- 
telligence. 

5.  Gives  off  the  cranial  nerves. 

6.  Natural  rest — Sleep  : 

a.  Necessary  amount  varies. 

b.  Hard  work  necessitates  more. 

c.  Average  for  man,  seven  to  eight  hours. 

d.  Children  require  more,  nine  to  ten  hours. 

e.  Use,  to   give  body,   and   esj)ecially  brain,  a 
complete  rest. 

/.  Proper  time,  at  night. 

g.  Disordered  sleep — wakefulness — may  be  due 
to  laziness,  tea,  coffee,  or  tobacco. 

7.  Divisions: 

a.  Cerebrum : 

1.  Largest  part  of  brain  (seven-eighths). 

2.  Large,  round  mass. 

3.  Divided  into  halves,  called  hemisj^heres. 

4.  Surface  uneven,  owing  to  winding  eleva- 
tions, between  which  the  surface  dips  in. 

5.  The  height  of  these  elevations  and  de- 
pressions is  proportionate  to  the  intelligence. 

6.  Exterior    gray    and    formed    largely   of 
cells. 

7.  Interior   white,  and  formed   entirely  of 
nerve-fibres. 

8.  Controls  mind,   will,   thought,  memory, 
and  intelligence. 

9.  Gives   reason  and  judgment,    elevating 
man  above  the  lower  animals. 

10.  Admits  of  training. 

h.  Cerebellum,  or  little  brain. 

1.  Much  smaller  than  cerebrum. 

2.  Forms  one-eighth  entire  brain. 

3.  Forms  lower  and  hind  part  of  brain. 

4.  Like  cerebrum,  is  gray  on  outside  and 
white  within. 


THE   NEKVOUS   SYSTEM.  229 

c.  Medulla : 

1.  Connection  between  brain  and  spinal  cord. 

2.  Very  important  part,  since  injury  to  one 
portion  causes  instant  death. 

B.  Spinal  Cord : 

1.  Long  bar  of  nerve-tissue. 

2.  Protected  by  :  a,  membranes. 

h,  bones  forming  vertebral  column. 

3.  Interior  formed  of  gray  matter,  arranged  in  cres- 
cents, and  composed  lai-gely  of  cells. 

4.  Outside  is  white  and  formed  of  nerve-fibres. 

5.  Gives  off  the  spinal  nerves. 

6.  Acts  as  an  agent  or  assistant  to  the  brain. 

7.  Controls  reflex  action — action  without  the  knowl- 
edge of  the  brain,  serving  to  protect  us  from  injury. 

C.  Nerves : 

Divisions  : 

1.  According  to  action  :  a,  sensation  ;  b,  motion. 

(1.)  Nerves  of  sensation,  carrying  impres- 
sions of  feeling,  such  as  pain,  etc.,  from  the 
surface  to  the  brain  and  sj^inal  cord. 

(2.)  Nerves  of  motion,  carrying  messages 
from  the  brain  and  spinal  cord  to  the  muscles, 
and  causing  these  to  act. 

2.  According  to  source  :  a,  cranial ;  b,  spinal. 

(1.)  Cranial  nerves,  twelve  pairs,  pass  from 
brain,  through  openings  in  bone,  to  various 
parts  of  the  head  and  neck. 

(2.)  Spinal  nerves,  thirty-one  pairs,  emerge 
from  spinal  cord  by  two  roots,  which  soon  join 
together,  pass  to  different  parts  of  the  trunk 
and  limbs. 
Disorders  of  the  Nervous  System,  due  to  : 

1.  Coffee  and  Tea  : 

a.  Often  excite  nervousness,  trembling,  etc. 

b.  Children  should  not  be  allowed  any. 

2.  Tobacco — Often  causes  nervousness,  trembling,  etc. 

3.  Alcoholic  Excess  : 

a.  Great  enemy  to  nervous  system. 


230  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 

h.  Stupefies  intelligence. 

c.  Excites  brain  in  undesirable  ways,  such  as  fighting, 
etc. 

d.  Causes  trembling  and  staggering. 

e.  Other  effects  on  rest  of  system. 

/.  Delirium  tremens — Result  of  drunkenness,  person  out 

of  mind  ;  great  trembling;  person  violent,  often  wishing  to 

jump  from  window ;  person  imagines  he  sees  enemies,  mice, 

rats,  snakes,  etc. ;  heart  often  seriously  weakened,  and  may 

die  from  this  cause. 

The  Sympathetic  Nervous  System — Smaller  than  general  nervous 

system — Central  or  main  part  extends  along  the  front  of   spinal 

column — Branches  pass  to  internal,  involuntaiy  organs. 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  difi'erent  parts  are  found  in  plants  as  well  as  in  animals? 
2.  What  is  the  skeleton  of  a  leaf  ?  3.  Do  plants  take  in  food  and 
drink?  4.  How?  5.  How  do  plants  breathe  ?  6.  What  difference 
is  there  in  the  breathing  of  plants  and  of  animals  ?  7.  What  are 
pores?  8.  What  fluid  is  there  in  plants  corresponding  to  the  blood 
of  animals?  9.  How  is  the  sap  carried  along?  10.  Do  plants  have 
any  warmth  of  their  own  ?  11.  How  can  you  prove  this  ?  12.  What 
part  of  animals  is  absent  in  plants  ?  13.  What  is  a  system  ?  14.  Give 
an  example.  15.  Does  the  nervous  system  exist  in  plants  ?  16.  In 
what  animal  is  there  the  highest  form  of  nervous  system  ?  17.  What 
is  the  function  of  the  nervous  system  ?  18.  What  might  happen  if 
we  did  not  have  a  nervous  system  ?  19.  Give  an  example  to  show 
that  there  must  be  a  chief  to  everything  where  there  are  many  parts. 
20.  Into  what  parts  can  we  divide  the  nervous  system?  21.  What  is 
the  office  of  the  brain  ?  22.  What  of  the  spinal  cord?  23.  What  of 
the  nerves  ?  24.  Give  an  examjDle  of  the  action  of  the  nervous  sys- 
tem. 25.  Does  it  take  the  nervous  system  a  long  time  to  act  ?  26. 
Give  an  example  to  show  how  quickly  it  acts.  27.  Where  is  the 
brain  situated ?  28.  What  protects  it?  29.  Is  it  soft  or  hard?  30. 
What  is  its  form ?  31.  What  is  its  size?  32.  What  is  its  weight? 
33.  Is  it  heavier  in  man  or  in  woman  ?  34.  Does  its  weight  depend 
upon  the  intelligence  of  the  person?  35.  Give  examples.  36,  What 
can  you  say  about  the  brains  of  idiots  ?  37.  Into  what  parts  can  the 
brain  be  divided  ?     38.  Where  is  the  cerebrum  ?     39.  What  are  the 


THE   NERVOUS   SYSTEM.  231 

liemisi^lieres  ?  40.  What  can  yon  say  abont  the  snrface  of  the  cere- 
brnm  ?  41.  What  is  pecnliar  abont  the  snrface  of  the  cerebrnm  in  very 
intelligent  persons  '?  42.  How  is  it  different  in  the  lower  animals  ? 
43.  What  is  the  color  of  the  cerebrnm  on  the  exterior  ?  44.  What  is 
the  color  of  the  interior  ?  45.  Of  what  does  the  gray  matter  consist  ? 
46.  Of  what  does  the  white  matter  consist '?  47.  Describe  the  cere- 
bellum. 48.  Describe  the  mednlla.  49.  Why  is  it  very  important  ? 
50.  What  is  a  nerve?  51.  Where  are  the  cranial  nerves ?  52.  To 
what  are  they  attached  ?  53.  Name  the  functions  of  the  brain.  54. 
What  is  meant  by  doing  things  "  by  instinct '?  "  55.  Where  does 
the  will  exist  ?  56.  What  is  meant  by  memory  ?  57.  What  is  intel- 
ligence ?  58.  What  is  reason?  59.  What  is  judgment?  60.  How 
can  we  train  the  brain  ?  61.  What  is  the  spinal  cord  ?  62.  How  is 
it  protected  ?  63.  What  is  meant  by  "  breaking  the  neck  ?  "  64. 
Of  what  is  the  sj^inal  cord  formed?  65.  How  does  it  look  inside  ? 
66.  What  are  the  spinal  nerves  ?  67.  How  many  are  there  ?  68. 
How  do  they  leave  the  spinal  cord  ?  69.  What  two  kinds  of  nerves 
are  there  ?  70.  What  are  the  functions  of  the  spinal  cord  ?  71. 
What  is  reflex  action?  72.  Give  an  example  of  reflex  action.  73. 
Of  what  use  is  reflex  action?  74.  What  is  sleep?  75.  How  must 
the  brain  be  rested?  76.  What  is  the  average  amount  of  sleep  re- 
quired for  a  man?  77.  How  much  for  a  child?  78.  What  are  the 
uses  of  sleep?  79.  What  is  the  proper  time  for  sleep ?  80.  When 
should  children  go  to  bed  ?  81.  When  should  they  rise  ?  82.  What 
is  nervousness  ?  83.  What  is  nervousness  due  to  ?  84.  What  is 
wakefulness  ?  85.  What  are  some  of  the  most  common  causes  ?  86. 
Is  it  natural  for  us  to  feel  a  little  tired  at  night  ?  87.  Why  can  some 
persons  who  are  idle  all  day  long  not  sleep  at  night  ?  88.  How  do 
coffee,  tea,  and  tobacco  act  on  the  nervous  system  ?  89.  What  effect 
has  alcohol  upon  the  nervous  system  ?  90.  How  is  the  brain  affected 
in  drunkenness  ?  91.  Name  some  of  the  disgusting  actions  of  the 
drunkard.  92.  How  are  the  nerves  affected  ?  93.  What  are  the  ef- 
fects of  repeated  drunkenness  ?  94.  What  is  delirium  tremens  ?  95. 
What  are  the  symptoms  of  delirium  tremens?  96.  What  effect  has 
tobacco  on  the  nervous  system?  97.  What  effect  have  coffee  and 
tea  on  the  nervous  system  ?  98.  What  is  the  sympathetic  system  of 
nerves?  99.  What  is  the  function  of  the  sympathetic  system? 
100.  What  is  its  arrangement?  101.  To  what  parts  is  the  sympa- 
thetic svstem  distributed  ? 


CHAPTER  XIII. 
THE  SENSES. 

504.  There  are  certain  organs  in  the  body  which  add  a  great 
deal  to  our  comfort  and  enjoyment  and  give  us  knowledge  and 
pleasure.  The  functions  of  these  organs  are  called  the  senses. 
There  are  five  of  them. 

1.  Touch — The  skin. 

2.  Taste — The  tongue. 

3.  Smell — The  nose. 

4.  Sight— The  eye. 

5.  Hearing. — The  ear. 

505.  Special  Senses. — They  are  often  called  the  sjjecial 
senses  because  each  one  has  a  special  duty  to  perform  and  can- 
not be  used  for  anything  else  ;  as,  for  instance,  our  eyes  can  be 
used  for  seeing  only.  The  skin  is  the  only  one  of  these  organs 
which  is  necessary  to  life  ;  and  it  is  an  organ  of  general  rather 
than  of  special  sense. 

THE  SENSE  OF   TOUCH— THE  SKIN. 

50G.  Thickness. — The  skin  forms  a  soft,  elastic  layer  which 
covers  the  entire  body.  It  is  not  of  the  same  thickness  in  all 
places.  It  is  thick  at  certain  places  where  the  bod}^  is  very 
much  exposed  or  where  there  is  much  friction,  as  in  the  j^alms 
of  the  hands  and  the  soles  of  the  feet.  In  other  places  which 
are  more  protected,  it  is  quite  thin  ;  as,  for  instance,  the  inner 
side  of  the  arm. 

507.  Uses  of  the  Skin. — As  has  already  been  stated,  the 
skin  is  necessary  to  life.     In  certain  accidents,  in  which  a  per- 


THE  SENSES.  233 

son  lias  burnt  or  scalded  himself  severely,  lie  may  die  because 
too  much  of  the  skin  has  been  lost.  There  are  four  principal 
uses  of  the  skin  :  (1)  As  a  protection  to  the  entire  body  ;  (2) 
as  the  organ  of  sensation  or  feeling  ;  (3)  to  throve  off  water, 
salts,  and  poisonous  matter  from  the  body  ;  (4)  to  regulate  the 
bodily  warmth. 

508.  The  Skin  as  the  Organ  of  Sensation  or  Feeling. 
— The  nerves  of  sensation  or  feeling  end  in  the  skin  in  little 
knobs,  which  are  the  portions  with  which  we  feel  the  different 
sensations,  such  as  heat,  cold,  smoothness,  roughness,  pain,  etc. 
Some  parts  of  the  body  are  more  sensitive  than  others.  This 
is  because  they  have  a  greater  suj^ply  of  these  nerves.  These 
same  nerves  also  give  rise  to  pain,  which  is  useful,  as  it  pro- 
tects the  body,  and  tells  you  when  to  be  careful.  If  you  are 
holding  a  lighted  match  in  your  fingers,  you  will  drop  it  as 
soon  as  it  burns  down  to  your  finger-tips  because  there  is  pain. 
If  there  were  no  pain  to  warn  you,  the  ends  of  the  fingers  might 
have  been  burnt  off  before  you  were  aware  of  it.  With  these 
nerves  we  are  enabled  to  feel  whether  anything  is  smooth  or 
rough,  sharp  or  dull,  cold  or  warm,  soft  or  hard.  The  finger- 
tips are  intended  as  the  organs  of  touch.  In  the  blind,  the 
sense  of  touch  becomes  very  much  developed,  and  such  persons 
can  be  trained  to  do  wonderful  things  by  means  of  the  fingers. 
The  books  of  the  blind  are  printed  with  letters  which  are  slightly 
raised  ;  and  it  is  marvellous  how  quickly  they  can  spell  the 
words  by  means  of  their  fingers. 

509.  Throwing  off  Water,  Salts,  and  Poisonous  Mat- 
ters.— This  is  a  very  important  use  of  the  skin.  If  an  animal 
were  to  be  covered  with  paint  or  varnish  so  as  to  close  all  the 
pores,  death  would  result  in  a  short  time. 

510.  Regulating  the  Bodily  Warmth.— The  skin  serves 
an  important  purpose  in  regulating  the  bodily  warmth.  It 
does  this  by  increasing  or  diminishing  the  amount  of  perspira- 
tion, thus  cooling  the  body  in  summer  by  permitting  free 
perspiration. 


234 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 


511.  Structure  of  the  Skin. — The  skin  is  formed  of  two 
layers  (Fig.  86).  The  outside  layer  is  called  the  scarf  skin ^  the 
dee])er  one  the  true  skin. 

512.  The  scarf  skin  is  formed 
of  a  great  many  scales  or  flat 
cells  covering  each  other  ;  and 
these  cells  are  being  constantly 
rubbed  away  and  cast  off,  and  are 
then  replaced  by  new  ones.  In 
taking  a  bath,  for  instance,  it  will 
be  noticed  that  in  drying  a  little 
of  the  skin  comes  off.  This  mate- 
rial is  formed  of  the  dead  cells 
which  are  cast  off.  The  scarf 
skin  of  the  scalp  is  often  cast  off 
in  small  scales  which  we  call  dan- 
druff.    This  throwing  off  of  these 

J,    ..        ,       ,  Fig.  80.— A  Piece  of  Skin  as  Seen  Undei- 

scales  from  the  skin    OI    the    body  the  Microscope,    d,  The  layers  of  flat  cells 

.,              ^               nil          /•                  T    •  forming  upper  layer  of  the  scarf  skin;  c, 

takes    place    ail     tlie     time    and    is  deeper  layer  of  scarf  skin  ;  &,  projections 

,          ,          T-                 1             J 1                     ,.  of  true  skin. 

natural.      In    snakes    the    scari 

skin  is  thrown  off  in  one  piece  and  forms  the  very  pretty  tubes 

sometimes  found  in  the  fields. 

513.  The  true  skin  is  the  part  which  contains  the  blood-ves- 
sels and  the  nerves ;  also  the  roots  of  the  hair,  the  perspiration 
tubes,  and  the  oil  tubes.  If  you  burn  yourself,  a  blister  forms, 
which  separates  the  scarf  skin  from  the  true  skin  ;  if  you  lift 
up  the  blister,  the  red  part  you  see  underneath  is  the  true 
skin.  The  true  skin  is  not  perfectly  smooth,  but  has  a  number 
of  small  projections  upon  it.  But  these  do  not  appear  on  the 
surface  of  the  skin  because  the  cells  of  the  scarf  skin  fill  out 
the  uneven  places  (Fig.  86). 

514.  Color  of  the  Skin. — The  skin  is  colored  differently 
in  different  parts  of  the  body.  It  is  darker,  for  instance,  on 
the  back  of  the  hand  than  on  the  arm.  Some  persons  have  very 
light-colored  skin  and  are  said  to  have  a  fair  complexion,  and 


THE   SENSES.  235 

these  usually  Lave  blonde  hair.  Others  have  dark  complexions 
and  usually  have  hair  of  a  dark  shade.  In  the  negro,  the  skin 
is  dark  brown.  This  difference  in  the  color  of  the  skin  depends 
upon  the  amount  of  coloring  matter  which  is  found  in  the  true 
skin.  In  white  people  there  is  very  little  of  this,  in  the  negro 
there  is  a  great  deal  of  it  in  the  form  of  small  dark  brown  grains. 

515.  If  you  look  at  the  skin  of  the  j)alms  of  the  hands,  espe- 
cially at  the  finger  tips,  you  will  see  fine  lines  arranged  in  cir- 
cles. If  you  examine  these  with  a  magnifying  glass  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  lines  are  raised,  and  it  is  here  that  the  nerves  of 
feeling  end  in  great  numbers, 

516.  Attachments  of  the  Skin. — Upon  examining  the 
skin,  we  find  in  it,  or  attached  to  it,  certain  parts  :  Pei^spira- 
tion  tubes,  oil  tubes,  hairs,  and,  in  certain  parts,  nails. 

517.  The  Perspiration  Tubes, — Tliesearethe  small  tubes 
in  the  skin,  which  give  off  the  perspiration.  There  are  a  great 
many  of  them.  Where  they  open  upon  the  skin  there  is  a 
small  space  called  ^^'pore.  There  are  thousands  of  these  pores 
in  the  space  of  every  inch  of  the  skin.  This  shows  the  necessity 
of  keeping  the  body  clean,  so  that  the  pores  remain  open,  for 
otherwise  the  perspiration  cannot  escape.  The  perspiration 
tubes  open  upon  the  surface  of  the  skin  ;  below,  they  com- 
mence by  a  series  of  windings  in  the  deeper  parts  of  the  skin, 
as  is  shown  in  Fig.  87. 

518.  The  Perspiration. — Perspiration  is  constantly  being- 
given  off  from  the  body,  day  and  night.  Most  of  the  time, 
especially  when  the  weather  is  cool,  it  is  invisible,  and  hence  is 
called  insensible  perspiration.  But  if  more  than  the  usual 
amount  is  given  off'  from  the  skin,  the  perspiration  collects  in 
drops  and  is  called  sensible  perspiration.  This  occurs  in  sum- 
mer and  at  other  seasons  of  the  year  when  we  become  over- 
heated or  work  hard.  Persj)iration  consists  largely  of  water  ; 
and  in  the  water  certain  mineral  salts  and  certain  poisonous 
matters  which  it  is  necessary  for  the  body  to  cast  off  are  dis- 
solved. 


236 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 


519.  Uses  of  the  Perspiration It  has  just  been  stated 

that  the  perspiration  takes  from  the  body  imter,  salts,  and  poison- 
ous matters.  Even  when  the  weather  is  cold  and  perspiration 
is  insensible,  about  a  pint  of  water  leaves  the 
body  daily  by  the  skin  ;  and  in  summer  much 
more  than  this  escapes.  This  will  give  an 
idea  how  many  of  these  perspiration  tubes 
there  must  be  and  how  active  they  must  be. 
Perspiration  is  also  very  imj^ortant  because 
it  cools  off  the  body,  as  has  already  been  de- 
scribed in  the  chapter  on  The  Heat  of  the 
Body. 

520.  The  Oil  Tubes. — Besides  the  per- 
spiration tubes,  there  are  others  which  run 
through  the  skin  and  open  on  or  near  its  sur- 
face, usually  where  there  is  hair  (Fig.  88). 
These  tubes  give  off  a  certain  oily  substance 
which  keeps  the  skin  soft  and  movable,  with- 
out which  the  skin  would  get  dry  and  cracked.      fig.  87.— one  of  the 

rm  •         •  1  ill-       Perspiratory  Tubes. 

This  Oily  matter  also  serves  to  keejD  the  hair   (Greatly    magnified.) 

-,  n      -t  ,^  ,       .  The  tube    is  seen   to 

glossy  and  soit ;  and  we  nnd  the  greatest  num-   pass  through  the  en- 

,  p      •^   i     ^  1  ii  •!•  Tj'i        tire   thickness   of  the 

ber  01  oil  tubes  where  there  is  hair,  it  is  to  skin,  through  its  dif- 
remove  the  oily  matter  which  has  become  stale  ^^^°  ^^^^^' 
that  we  need  soap  in  washing.  Sometimes  there  is  too  much 
of  this  oily  matter  and  then  the  skin  has  a  greasy  look,  such  as 
we  often  see  on  the  forehead  and  nose.  Sometimes  these  oil 
tubes  become  stopped  up  by  a  little  dirt ;  and  as  a  result  the 
oily  matter  is  kept  in  and  we  see  a  black  spot  on  the  nose  or 
forehead.  This  is  often  called  a  worm,  but  it  is  no  worm,  but 
simply  the  oily  matter  which  cannot  escape  because  the  open- 
ing of  its  tube  has  become  clogged  up. 

521.  The  Hair. — If  a  hair  be  examined  it  will  be  found 
that  one  end  is  pointed,  while  the  other,  which  was  attached 
to  the  skin,  has  a  white  knob,  called  its  root,  and  it  is  through 
this  that  it  is  fastened  to  the  skin  (Fig.  88).     The  hair  is  not 


THE  ren'sp:s.  237 

solid  but  is  a  tube,  and  has  a  canal  in  its  centre  filled  with  a 
soft  material.  Deep  in  the  skin  there  are  small  cup-like  spaces 
into  which  the  root  of  the  hair  fits  and  is  attached.  Hair 
differs  very  much  in  color,  and  this  is  because  there  is  a  differ- 
ence in  the  amount  of  the  coloring  substance  present  in  differ- 
ent cases. 

522.  The  Nails.— At  the  end  of  the  fingers  and  toes  are 
the  nails.  They  are  hard  and  horny  and  serve  to  protect  the 
finger  tips  and  give  them  firmness.  In  front  they  have  no  feel- 
ing and  we  may  cut  them  without  paining  us.     But  further 


Fig.  88.— a  Tiece  of  Skin  Cnt  Across  to  Show  the  Way  in  which  lluir  is  Attached  to  the 
Skin.  (Highly  masnifiefl.)  There  is  seen  to  be  a  depression  in  the  skin  into  which  the 
hair  dips.  Below,  the  round,  expanded  extremity  or  root  of  the  hair  is  seen.  Two  oil  tubes 
are  seen  opening  along  the  side  of  the  hair  near  the  surface  of  the  skin. 

back  they  are  very  firmly  attached  to  the  back  of  the  finger 
and  here  they  are  very  sensitive. 

523.  Care  of  the  Skin. — You  will  now  appreciate  how  im- 
portant the  skin  is,  and  why  it  is  necessary  to  keep  it  in  good 
condition.  Cleanliness  is  next  to  Godliness  is  an  old  saying ; 
if  you  wish  to  be  healthy  you  must  be  clean.  Dirt  is,  as  a 
rule,  a  sign  of  ignorance  ;  and  those  nations  are  usually  the 
dirtiest  which  are  the  most  backward  in  civilization.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  more  civilized  people  are  the  cleaner  do  they 
keep  themselves.  There  are  few  things  that  cause  so  much 
disease  as  uncle anlim ess  and  filth. 

524.  The  Results  of  Uncleanliness  and  Filth. — When- 
ever you  read  of  outbreaks  of  cholera  and  such  diseases  you 


238  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 


,         J^    J.i.J.<JJ.KJ^^KA    J.    J 


will  always  find  that  they  occur  in  parts  of  cities  which  are 
overcrowded  and  filthy.  This  was  shown  in  the  last  outbreak 
of  cholera  many  years  ago  in  New  York.  It  is  easy  to  un- 
derstand why  this  should  be  so.  The  pores  of  the  skin  are 
the  openings  by  which  the  bod}'  gets  rid  of  waste  materials, 
just  as  the  sewer  pij^es  of  a  city  carry  off  the  refuse.  Suppose 
the  sewer  becomes  stopped  up  in  a  large  city,  what  trouble  it 
causes !  What  dirt !  What  a  stench !  In  the  same  way, 
when  we  allow  the  dirt  to  cover  the  pores  of  our  skin,  the 
poisonous  materials  cannot  escape,  and  the  body  suffers.  In 
taking  proper  care  of  tlie  skin  it  is  necessary  to  pay  attention 
to  bathing,  to  our  clothing,  to  exercise,  and  to  avoid  using  pow- 
der or  any  like  substance  upon  the  skin. 

525.  Bathing. — It  is  not  sufficient  to  wash  the  hands  and 
face  daily  ;  we  should  wash  off  the  entire  body  at  least  once  a 
week.  If  you  shake  out  some  of  your  underclothing  at  night, 
you  will  find  a  great  many  small  white  flakes  fall  to  the  ground. 
They  represent  the  upj^ermost  layer  of  the  skin  which  is  con- 
stantly being  cast  off  in  these  small  particles  and  replaced 
by  the  deeper  layers.  The  entire  body  is  covered  with  these 
scales,  and  it  is  necessary  to  remove  them  often.  Some  fall  off 
by  themselves,  but  others  must  be  removed  by  soap  and  water. 
Consequently,  at  least  once  a  week  we  should  take  a  w^arm 
bath,  and  use  soap  in  it,  for  this  removes  the  stale,  oily  matter 
also. 

526.  Cold  Baths. — Besides  the  warm  bath  for  the  sake  of 
cleanliness,  we  should  take  cold  baths,  especiall}^  in  summer, 
because  they  are  refreshing  and  strejigthening.  After  taking  a 
cold  bath  it  is  well  to  rub  the  body  with  a  coarse  towel  so  as  to 
make  the  skin  glow  and  tingle.  This  causes  the  blood  to  cir- 
culate faster,  and  increases  our  strength  and  appetite.  It  is 
injurious  to  remain  in  a  cold  bath  until  you  begin  to  shiver. 
As  soon  as  j'ou  begin  to  feel  cliilly  you  sliould  go  out.  Many 
persons  are  harmed  by  cold  bathing  because  they  remain  in 
the  water  for  too  long  a  time.     Some  persons  are  naturally 


THE  SENSES.  239 

weak,  and  when  they  take  a  cold  bath  they  are  not  able  to 
withstand  its  ellects,  so  that  even  though  they  rub  the  body 
afterward  they  still  feel  cold  and  chilly  ;  which  is  a  sign  that 
they  are  unable  to  endure  cold  bathing.  Such  people  should 
be  content  to  simply  sponge  off  the  body  with  cold  water,  be- 
sides taking  a  warm  bath  about  once  a  week  for  the  purpose 
of  cleansing  the  body.  Never  hatJte  directly  after  <(.  meal ;  wait 
two  or  three  hours.  If  you  are  overheated  and  perspire  freely, 
it  is  better  to  wait  until  you  are  somewhat  cooled  off  before  you 
go  into  cold  water.  Always  loet  the  entire  head  as  well  as  the 
rest  of  the  body  when  bathing. 

527.  The  Turkish  and  the  Russian  Bath.— Probably 
all  of  you  have  heard  of  the  Turkish  bath  and  the  Ilussianbath. 
In  the  TarkiHli  txith,  the  person  is  kept  in  a  room  with  very  hot 
air  until  he  perspires  freely  ;  he  is  then  scrubbed  with  soap 
and  water ;  then  he  plunges  into  a  cold  water  bath  ;  next  his 
skin  is  rubbed  and  his  muscles  kneaded  by  men  who  are  em- 
ployed for  this  purpose.  This  causes  the  blood  to  flow 
faster ;  then  the  person  rests  himself  thoroughly  before  going 
out  into  the  air.  The  Ramian  bath  is  similar,  the  only  differ- 
ence being  that  the  room  is  filled  with  steam  instead  of  hot 
air,  to  make  the  person  perspire  freely.  These  baths  are  good 
for  grown  people,  but  are  not  suitable  for  children. 

528.  Clothing.— In  the  chapter  on  The  Heat  of  the  Body 
something  has  already  been  said  about  proper  clothing,  so 
that  little  need  be  added  here.  We  should  change  under- 
clothing frequently.  It  is  a  healthy  practice  to  take  off  all  our 
underclothing  at  night  and  allow  it  to  hang  up  and  be  thor- 
oughly aired  before  putting  on  again  the  next  morning. 

529.  Exercise  helps  to  keep  the  skin  in  good  condition  by 
making  us  perspire  more  freely,  and  in  this  way  keeping  the 
pores  open.  It  also  causes  the  blood  to  circulate  through  the 
skin  more  rapidly,  which  gives  us  the  delightful  feeling  of 
warmth  after  exercising. 

530.  Cosmetics. — The  use  of  powders  and  like  substances 


240  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 

upon  the  skin  is  very  injurious.  These  substances,  which  are 
called  cosmetics,  stop  up  the  pores  and  make  the  skin  rough 
and  ugly.  Besides,  many  of  them  are  poisonous,  and  this 
poison  may  get  into  the  blood  through  the  skin  and  poison 
the  body.  Powdering  the  face  is  not  done  by  the  better  class 
of  people. 

531.  Care  of  the  Hair. — The  hair  should  be  combed  and 
brushed  every  morning.  Every  few  weeks  it  will  be  necessary 
to  wash  it  with  soap  and  water.  The  oil  tubes  of  the  scalp 
usually  supply  enough  oily  matter  to  keep  the  hair  glossy  ; 
hence  the  practice  of  putting  oU  or  greme  on  the  hair  is  not 
only  very  vulgar  and  nasty  but  it  is  unnecessary.  Crimping  the 
hair  by  hot  irons  destroys  the  hair  and  makes  it  fall  out.  Hair 
dyes  are  injurious  ;  nearly  all  are  made  of  deadly  poisons,  which 
may  get  into  the  blood  and  poison  the  entire  body. 

532.  Care  of  the  Nails. — The  nails  should  be  cut  with 
scissors  at  recfular  intervals.  The 
finger  nails  should  not  be  bitten 
off.  The  nails  should  not  be  cut 
too  close  or  else  the  finger  tips 
and  the  ends  of  the  toes  will  be- 
come   sore.        Many    persons    liave       Fig.  89.-Proper  and  improper  Method 

^nvf^  fnPQ  PQiiPPiallv  tliP  bio-  fop  °^  Trimming  the  Toe  nails.  The  figure 
SOie    roes,   especially    me    Ulg    roe,   to  the  left  exhibits  che  proper  method— 

hppnntsp  thpv  do  not  put  the  nail  ™^  "*^  squarely:  that  to  the  right  the 
Oecause    ine^    ao    IIOL    CUL    lue  lldU  improper  method  — cut  ofE    round  and 

properly.     It  should   be    cut  *'^^^*^- 

straight  across  and  not  rounded  and  short  (Fig.  89).    Hangnails 

often  result  from  biting  the  nails  or  keeping  the  fingers  in  the 

mouth. 


THE   SENSES.  241 

SYNOPSIS. 

The  Skin : 

1.  Thickness — Varies  in  different  parts  of  body. 

2.  Uses: 

a.  Protection. 

b.  Organ  of  sensation  or  feeling  : 

1.  Acuteness  varies  in  different  parts  of  body. 

2.  Greatest  at  finger-tips. 

3.  May  be  developed,  as  in  the  blind, 

4.  Depends  on  the  nerves  of  sensation,  ending  in  the 
skin  by  small  knobs. 

c.  To  throw  off  water,  salts,  and  poisonous  matters  from 
the  body. 

d.  To  regulate  the  bodily  warmth. 

3.  Structure : 

a.  Scarf-skin  on  the  outside. 
h.  True  skin  beneath. 

4.  Color: 

a.  Varies  in  different  parts  of  body. 
h.  Varies  in  diff'erent  races. 

c.  Depends  on  the  amount  of  brown  coloring  matter  ex- 
isting in  the  true  skin. 

5.  Attachments  : 

a.  Perspiration-tubes — Openings  called  pores  ;  necessity 
for  keeping  open  ;  i^erspiration,  sensible  and  insensible  ; 
removes  matters  from  body  and  cools  body. 

h.  Oil-tubes — Keep  skin  soft  and  hair  glossy  and  soft ; 
necessity  for  using  soap  to  remove  stale  oily  matter. 

c.  Hair — Eoot  and  point ;  hollow  ;  color  varies ;  should 
be  combed  and  brushed  daily  ;  should  be  washed  every  few 
weeks  ;  no  oil  or  dyes. 

d.  Nails — Should  be  cut  regularly,  not  bitten  off;  cut 
across  square. 

6.  Care  of  Skin : 

a.  Cleanliness. 

b.  Bathing  : 

1.  Warm  bath  and  soap  for  cleanliness. 

2.  Cold  bath,  refreshing. 


242  AT^^ATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 

3.  Turkish  bath.  4.  Eussian  bath. 

5.  No  cold  baths  for  those  too  weak  to  stand  them. 

6.  No  bathing  directly  after  meals. 

7.  No  bathing  when  overheated. 

8.  Wet  head  as  well  as  rest  of  body. 

9.  Rub  body  well  with  coarse  towel  after  bath. 

c.  Clothing — Necessity  for   changing   underclothes   fre- 
quently. 

d.  Exercise. 

e.  Cosmetics — To  be  avoided. 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  Name  the  special  senses.  2.  Is  the  skin  of  the  same  thickness 
throughout  the  body  ?  3.  At  what  points  is  it  the  thickest  ?  4.  What 
are  the  uses  of  the  skin?  5.  Is  it  necessary  to  life?  6.  How  is 
this  i:>roven ?  7.  Of  what  service  is  pain?  8.  Of  what  use  are  the 
nerves  of  feeling?  9.  What  parts  of  the  body  are  intended  espe- 
cially for  feeling  ?  10.  What  is  peculiar  of  the  touch  of  the  blind  ? 
11.  What  is  discharged  from  the  body  by  means  of  the  skin?  12. 
What  effect  has  the  skin  ui)on  the  bodily  warmth?  13.  Is  the  color 
of  the  skin  always  the  same  ?  14.  Upon  what  does  the  color  of  the 
skin  in  the  negro  depend  ?  15.  Of  how  many  layers  is  the  skin 
formed?  16.  What  are  these  layers  called?  17.  Of  what  is  the 
scarf-skin  formed?  18.  What  becomes  of  the  scales  which  form 
the  scarf-skin?  19.  What  is  dandruff?  20.  Describe  the  true 
skin.  21.  How  do  the  two  layers  of  the  skin  become  separated  in 
slight  burns  ?  22.  Describe  the  i^ersj^iration  tubes.  23.  What  are 
the  pores?  24.  What  is  insensible  perspiration  ?  25.  What  is  sensi- 
ble perspiration  ?  26.  What  are  the  uses  of  jDcrspiration  ?  27.  Wliat 
does  the  perspiration  remove  from  the  body?  28,  About  how  much 
perspiration  leaves  the  body  every  day  ?  29.  How  does  persiDiration 
cool  off  the  body  ?  30.  What  appearance  does  the  skin  of  the  finger- 
tips present  ?  31.  What  other  tubes  are  there  besides  the  perspira- 
tion-tubes? 32.  Of  what  use  is  the  material  which  the  oil-tubes  j^ro- 
duce  ?  33.  What  happens  when  the  oil-tubes  get  stopped  uj^?  34. 
Why  does  the  skin  of  the  nose  and  forehead  sometimes  have  a 
greasy  look  ?  35.  Describe  a  hair.  36.  How  is  hair  attached  to  the 
skin?  37.  Of  what  use  are  the  nails?  38.  Why  is  cleanliness  so 
very  important  ?    39.  Of  what  is  dirt  a  sign  in  regard  to  civilization  ? 


THE   SENSES. 


243 


40.  What  effect  upon  the  health  has  filth?  41.  Why  is  filth  so  bad 
for  the  health?  42.  How  often  should  the  entire  body  be  washed? 
43.  Why  should  the  entire  body  be  washed  frequently  with  soap  and 
warm  water?  44.  What  are  the  effects  of  a  cold  bath?  45.  What 
should  we  do  to  make  the  circulation  more  brisk  after  a  cold  bath  ? 

46.  What  is  the  sign  that  you  have  been  in  a  cold  bath  long  enough  ? 

47.  Is  it  well  to  bathe  directly  after  a  meal  ?  48.  What  other  pre- 
cautions should  you  take  when  bathing  ?  49.  Exj)lain  the  Turkish 
and  the  Russian  bath.  50.  Should  we  wear  the  same  underclothing  at 
night  that  we  have  worn  during  the  day  ?  51.  How  does  exercise 
affect  the  skin?  52.  What  are  cosmetics?  53.  What  effect  have 
they  upon  the  skin?  54.  What  should  be  done  to  the  hair?  55. 
What  can  you  say  about  the  practice  of  jDutting  oil  or  grease  upon 
the  hair  ?  56.  What  are  most  hair  dyes  made  of  ?  57.  How  should 
the  nails  be  cut  ? 


THE  NOSE— THE  SENSE  OF  SMELL. 

583.   Functions. — The  nose  is  the  organ  with  which  we 
smell.     It  is  also  the  part  through  which  the  air  is  drawn.     The 


iSmdl 

Mr 


Jbod 


Fig.  90.— Diagram  Exhibiting  the  Channels  by  which  Smell,  Air  and  Food  Reach  the  In- 
terior of  the  Body. 


lower  -part  of  the  nose  represents  a  passage  for  breathing,  the 
upper  portion  is  the  part  devoted  to  the  sense  of  amell  (Fig.  90). 


244  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 

534.  The  Breathing  Channel  and  the  Smelling  Chan- 
nel.— When  we  breathe  we  draw  the  air  backward  through  the 
lower  part  of  the  nose.  This  part  of  the  nose  runs  horizontally 
backward,  and  behind  joins  the  throat ;  so  that  if  a  fluid  is 
poured  into  the  nose  it  will  run  into  the  throat.  When  we 
amell,  we  draw  the  air  upward,  because  we  want  the  odor  to 
ascend  to  where  the  nerves  of  smell  are. 

535.  Parts  of  the  Nose. — The  nose  is  formed  of  bones 
and  grintle.  The  hard  part  on  the  outside,  where  usually  peo- 
ple wear  their  eyeglasses,  is  formed  of  two  small  bones  and  is 
called  the  bridge  of  the  nose.  In  looking  into  the  nose  we  find 
that  it  is  divided  into  two  halves.  The  openings  in  front  are 
called  the  nostrils.  In  the  interior  of  the  nose  on  each  side  are 
found  three  shelves  of  bone  covered  by  a  soft  membrane  ;  and 
beneath  each  shelf  is  a  passage-way  which  runs  from  the  front 
to  the  back  of  the  nose. 

536.  The  Nerves  of  Smell. — In  the  membrane  which 
covers  the  two  upper  shelves  just  described,  are  found  numer- 
ous nerves,  the  nerves  of  smell.  By  consulting  Fig.  91,  it  will 
be  seen  that  the  brain  lies  immediately  above  the  nose.  These 
nerves  of  smell  come  in  bunches  from  the  brain,  and  descend 
into  the  nose.  Although  we  are  in  the  habit  of  saying  that  we 
smell  with  the  nose,  it  would  be  more  correct,  strictly  speaking, 
to  say  that  we  smell  with  the  front  part  of  the  brain.  The 
nerves  of  smell  merely  serve  to  carry  the  odors  to  the  brain. 
This  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  there  is  a  loss  of  the  sense  of 
smell  if  the  front  part  of  the  brain  be  injured  or  diseased,  even 
though  the  nerves  of  smell  still  be  present. 

537.  The  Sense  of  Smell  in  the  Lower  Animals. — 
Many  of  the  lower  animals  have  a  much  more  acute  sense  of 
smell  than  man.  Dogs  and  cats,  for  instance,  can  smell  the 
faintest  odors  at  great  distances.  In  hunting  dogs  the  sense 
of  smell  is  extraordinarily  acute  ;  they  can  smell  game  miles 
away  and  for  this  reason  are  valuable  in  hunting.  This  is 
spoken  of  as  scenting  the  game.     Before  the  civil  war,  blood- 


THE  SENSES.  245 

houncls  were  employed  to  track  runaway  slaves,  and  they  were 
able  to  do  this  owing  to  the  acuteuess  of  their  sense  of  smelL 

538.  Cold  in  the  Head. — Almost  everyone  has  caught  cold 
at  some  time.  When  we  catch  cold  it  may  settle  in  any  part  of 
the  body ;  it  may  attack  the  lungs,  or  the  stomach,  or  some 
other  organ.     When  the  cold  settles  in  our  head  we  usually 


FlO.  91.— View  of  the  Interior  of  the  Nose,  showing  the  Nerves  of  Smell  Descending  into 
the  Nose  from  the  Brain,  in  the  Form  of  a  Bunch. 

feel  it  principally  in  the  nose  and  throat.  We  often  get  a  sore 
throat  and  our  nose  feels  stopped  up  so  that  we  cannot  smell, 
and  we  cannot  breathe  through  it,  because  there  is  too  much 
blood  in  it. 

539.  Gold  in  the  head  is  oftenest  due  to  sitting  or  standing  in 
a  draught,  or  to  going  suddenly  into  the  cool  air  when  we  are 
overheated,  without  putting  on  some  additional  clothing.  Very 
often  we  know  that  we  have  been  imprudent  in  this  way  and 
can  feel  the  cold  coming  on,  and  then  a  mustard  foot-bath  may 
prevent  it. 

540.  Use  of  the  Sense  of  SmelL — With  the  sense  of 
smell  we  are  able  to  enjoy  agreeable  odors.     But  what  is  im- 


246  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND  HYGIENE. 

portant  is,  that  we  are  also  able  to  smell  had  odors,  thus  pro- 
tecting  the  body  by  informing  us  of  the  whereabouts  of  obnox- 
ious things  which  should  be  avoided,  especially  of  impure  air. 
It  enables  us  to  select  the  proper /oocZ,  and  to  refuse  that  which 
is  unfit  to  eat.  It  often  protects  our  bodies  and  homes  by 
enabling  us  to  smell  smoke  and  in  this  way  to  discover  the 
existence  of  a  fire. 

541.  Sweet  Scents. — To  smell  the  sweet  odors  which 
flowers  give  off,  is  very  agreeable.  Odors  are  given  off  by  the 
oils  existing  in  the  flowers  of  plants.  These  oils  are  extracted 
from  the  flowers,  and  this  is  then  called  perfiime.  Many  per- 
sons use  this  perfume  to  put  upon  their  handkerchiefs  and 
clothes  so  that  they  may  smell  sweet ;  but,  as  a  rule,  the  most 
refined  people  do  not  use  perfumes.  If  you  always  keep  the 
body  clean  and  brush  your  teeth  often  you  will  not  need  any 
perfume ;  for  if  the  body  is  clean,  it  always  smells  sweet. 
Soap  and  water  are  better  than  perfume  to  tidy  people. 


SYNOPSIS. 

The  Nose : 

1.  Parts: 

(1.)  Two  bones  forming  bridge. 

(2.)  Gristle. 

(3.)  Two  nostrils. 

(4.)  Three  shelves  running  from  front  to  rear. 

(5.)  Shelves  covered  by  soft  membrane. 

(6.)  Membrane  of  upper  two  shelves  supplied  with 

(7.)  Nerves  of  smell  which  descend  in  a  bunch  from  brain. 

2.  Functions : 

(1.)  Lower  passage  for  air. 

(2.)  Upper  part  for  sense  of  smell. 

a.  Great  acuteness  in  some  of  lower  animals. 

b.  Blunted  in  cold  in  head. 

c.  Use — To  protect  us  from  impure  air  and  im- 
proper food. 


THE  SENSES.  247 


QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  are  the  uses  of  the  nose?  2.  Which  part  of  the  nose 
serves  for  breathing ?  3.  Which  X3art  is  used  for  smelling?  4.  Of 
what  is  the  nose  formed  ?  5.  Where  is  the  bridge  of  the  nose  ?  6. 
What  are  the  nostrils?  7.  What  do  we  find  in  the  inside  of  the 
nose  ?  8.  Where  are  the  nerves  of  smell?  9.  Where  do  they  come 
from  ?  10.  How  is  tho  nose  connected  with  the  throat  ?  11.  Where 
do  we  find  the  more  acute  sense  of  smell,  in  man  or  in  the  lower 
animals  ?  12.  Give  an  example.  13.  What  is  meant  by  a  cold  in 
the  head  ?  14.  What  is  this  often  caused  by  ?  15.  What  are  the 
uses  of  the  sense  of  smell  ?  16.  What  parts  of  plants  usually  give 
off  the  sweet  scents  ?  17.  What  can  you  say  about  the  habit  of 
using  perfume  upon  the  handkerchief  or  clothing  ? 


THE  TONGUE  AND  THE  SENSE  OP  TASTE. 

The  tongue  is  the  organ  with  which  we  taste  our  food, 

542.  Structure  of  the  Tongue. — This  organ  consists 
almost  entirely  of  muscle  tissue.  Its  under  surface  is  smooth, 
and  its  upper  surface  very  rough.  This  roughness  is  due  to  a 
large  number  of  small  projections.  These  can  be  seen  better 
in  the  lower  animals  than  in  man,  and  serve  two  purposes : 
First,  they  are  the  parts  which  give  us  taste;  the  nerves  of 
taste  ending  in  rounded  extremities  in  these  elevations.  The 
other  use  is  to  feel  the  food  in  our  mouth  and  to  discover 
whether  it  is  chewed  sufficiently  fine,  and  mixed  enough  with 
the  saliva,  before  it  is  swallowed.  The  lower  animals,  as  dogs 
and  cats,  are  enabled  to  scrape  off  bones  by  means  of  these 
projections. 

543.  Uses  of  the  Tongue. — The  uses  of  the  tongue  are : 
(1)  as  the  organ  of  taste  ;  (2)  to  revolve  the  food  in  the  mouth, 
to  mix  it  with  the  saliv<(,  to  separate  hard  portions  of  food,  as 


248 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 


seed  and  shells,  and  to  assist  in  swallowing ;  and  (3)  as  the 
principal  organ  in  speaking.  The  importance  of  the  sense  of 
taste  need  not  be  pointed  out  especially.  It  enables  us  to 
choose  our  food  and  to  avoid  what  is  unfit  to  eat ;  it  prevents 


Pig.  92. — ^The  Human  Tongue ;  above,  the  Epiglottis  is  also  seen. 


US  from  eating  improper  food  ;  it  increases  the  appetite  and 
makes  us  enjoy  our  meals  when  the  food  is  to  our  liking. 

544.  Abuse  of  the  Sense  of  Taste.— The  sense  of  taste 
adds  much  to  our  enjoyment.  It  is  necessary,  however,  to 
prevent   it   from    enjoying   too    many  liberties,  otherwise  we 


THE  SENSES.  249 

shall  be  eating  too  much,  become  gluttons,  and  suffer  in  health. 
In  selecting  our  meals,  we  are  guided  by  what  is  wholesome; 
nourishing,  and  digestible. 

SYNOPSIS. 
The  Tongue. 
Structure — 

1.  Formed  of  muscle-tissue. 

2.  Smooth  on  under  surface. 

3.  Eough  on  upper  surface,  due  to 

4.  Small  projections  which  serve  to 

a.  Feel  food  to  see  if  properly  chewed. 

b.  Taste  with,  since  nerves  of  taste  end  here. 
Uses — 

1.  Organ  of  taste. 

2.  To  revolve  food  in  mouth,  mix  it  with  saliva,  remove  hard 

portions,  and  assist  in  swallowing. 

3.  To  assist  in  speaking. 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  Describe  the  tongue.  2.  Of  what  kind  of  tissue  is  it  made 
up?  3.  Which  surface  is  rough?  4  "What  is  this  roughness  due 
to?  5.  Of  what  use  are  these  small  elevations?  6.  What  are  the 
uses  of  the  tongue  ?  7.  What  are  the  uses  of  the  sense  of  taste  ? 
8.  How  might  we  abuse  the  sense  of  taste  ? 


THE   EYE   A^D    THE    SENSE   OF   SIGHT. 

545.  Protections  to  the    Eye. — The  eve  is  one  of  the 

most  delicate  organs  in  the  body.  It  is  placed  in  the  large 
opening  in  the  skull  found  just  below  the  forehead,  on  each 
side  of  the  nose,  called  the  orhit.  This  affords  it  considera- 
ble protection.  Besides  this,  it  is  also  protected  by  the  eije- 
brows,  eyelids,  and  eyelashes.  In  the  orbit  the  eye  rests  upon 
a  soft  cushion  of  fat. 


250 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 


546.  The  Eyelids. — These  serve  to  protect  the  eyes  by 
their  quick  movement  in  closing,  thus  keeping  out  dust.  They 
keep  out  the  light  when  too  strong,  or  during  sleep. 

547.  The  Eyebrows  and  Eyelashes. — These  keep  the 
perspiration  from  rolling  into  the  eyes,  and  keep  out  dust. 
They  should  never  be  cut,  for  this  will  not  cause  them  to  grow 
any  longer  and  injures  them  by  making  them  thick  and  stiff. 


End  of  choroid  coat  in  front. . 

Space  behind  iris 

Membrane  supporting  the  lens 

Cornea 

Aqueous  humor 

Lens 

Iris 

Space  behind  iris  . 

End  of  clioroid  coat  in  front  . 


Fig.  98.— The  Human  Eye  (Cut  Across  and  Enlarge  1),  Showing  Its  Different  Parts  and 

the  Interior. 


548.  Parts  of  the  Eye. — The  eye  is  spherical  in  shape,  and 
measures  about  an  inch  in  diameter.  Its  front  portion  is  per- 
fectly transparent,  and  is  called  the  cornea.  But  behind  the 
cornea,  which  forms  about  one-fifth  of  the  circumference  of  the 
eyeball,  it  is  opaque  and  white,  and  can  be  separated  into  three 
laj'ers,  or  coats.  The  outermost  layer  is  hard  and  strong,  and 
it  preserves  the  form  of  the  eyeball ;  it  is  called  the  tvhite  of 
the  eye,  or  the  sclerotic  coat.  The  middle  layer  is  dark-colored, 
and  is  called  the  choroid  coat.     The  inner  layer  is  called  the 


THE   SENSES.  251 

retina,  and  is  of  great  importance,  because  the  nerve  of  the  eye 
sends  its  branches  to  it,  and  it  is  the  portion  of  the  eye  with 
which  we  see  (Fig.  93). 

549.  Looking  into  the  eye,  we  see  in  the  centre  a  black  spot 
which  is  called  the  impil.  It  is  a  round  opening  in  a  mem- 
brane which  acts  as  a  partition  to  this  part  of  the  eye.  This 
membrane  is  a  colored  ring  which  surrounds  the  x^apil  and  is 
really  a  cartain  hanging  behind  the  clear  part  of  the  eye.  It  is 
called  the  iris. 

550.  Behind  this  curtain,  the  iris,  is  a  round  transparent 
body,  about  the  size  of  a  cherry-pit,  which  is  called  the  lens. 
It  is  perfectly  clear  and  its  shape  is  like  that  of  a  small  magni- 
fying glass  ;  bat  it  is  softer,  like  a  hard  jelly.  It  is  supported 
behind  the  iris,  just  where  the  transparent  part  of  the  eye  joins 
the  opaque  portion,  by  a  delicate  membrane,  and  is  round,  but 
flattened  somewhat  in  front  and  behind. 

551.  The  interior  of  the  eye  is  filled  with  fluid.  Just  be- 
hind the  cornea,  extending  to  the  lens,  is  a  space  which  is 
filled  Avith  a  watery  fluid  called  the  aqueous  humor.  The 
rest  of  the  eyeball  (behind  the  lens)  is  filled  with  a  clear 
substance  like  white  jelly,  called  the  glassy  body  or  vitreous 
humor. 

552.  The  Iris. — It  has  just  been  explained  that  this  is  a 
curtain  placed  in  front  of  the  lens  of  the  eye.  There  is  a  round 
opening  in  the  centre,  by  which  light  is  admitted  to  the  eye  ; 
this  is  the  pupil.  The  pupil  changes  its  size  very  often.  When 
we  look  at  anything  in  the  distance  the  pupil  becomes  large ; 
when  we  look  at  objects  close  by  it  becomes  very  small.  The 
pupil  also  regulates  the  amount  of  light  which  should  enter  the 
eye.  In  going  into  a  bright  light,  as  for  instance  into  the  sun, 
the  pupil  becomes  very  small ;  if  it  did  not  do  so  the  light 
would  be  too  bright  and  would  injure  the  eye.  It  is  very 
dangerous  to  the  eye  to  try  to  look  at  the  sun.  In  the  twilight, 
when  the  light  is  dim,  you  wiU  notice  that  the  pupil  becomes 
very  large. 


25S  ANAT03IY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND  HYGIEKE. 

553.  The  Muscles  of  the  Eye. — It  is  woDclerful  how 
rapidly  the  eyes  move  ;  but  this  is  necessary  to  protect  the 
body.  The  rapid  motion  of  the  eyes  is  also  necessary  so  that 
they  can  act  together.  If  you  were  to  press  upon  one  eye  so 
that  it  could  not  move,  and  then  were  to  move  the  other,  every- 
thing would  look  double  ;  so  that  the  two  eyes  must  move  to- 
gether if  we  want  to  see  singly  and  plainly.  There  are  six 
small  muscles  (Fig,  94)  attached  to  each  eye,  which  make  its 
movements  so  rapid.  Sometimes  one  of  these  muscles  does 
not  act  so  well  as  it  should  ;  then  the  eye  turns  in  all  the  time 


Fig.  94. -The  Muscles  Attached  to  the  Eyeball  and  to  the  Upper  Lid. 

or  constantly  looks  outward  ;  the  person  is  then  cross-eyed,  or 
squints.  Some  children  are  born  this  way  and  it  is  not  right  to 
make  fun  of  them.  Sometimes  children  turn  their  eyes  so  as 
to  imitate  cross-eyed  persons — a  very  injurious  habit. 

554.  How  We  See. — It  may  seem  strange  to  say  that  we 
really  see  with  the  brain,  but  such  is  the  case.  Of  course  the 
eyes  are  necessary,  and  without  them  we  should  be  blind  ;  but 
the  brain  is  also  necessary  for  sight.  If  a  certain  part  of  the 
brain  be  injured  we  cannot  see,  even  though  our  eyes  remain 
as  clear  and  bright  as  they  were  before. 

555.  Resemblance  of  the  Eye  to  a  Photographer's 
Camera. — The  eye  resembles  the  box  which  the  photographer 
uses  to  take  pictures,  and  which  is  called  a  camera.  Let  us  see 
how  it  resembles  the  photographer's  camera.     In  the  first  place 


THE   SENSES.  253 

the  photographer  cannot  talie  a  picture  in  the  dark,  nor  can  we 
see  in  the  dark.  Secondly,  in  the  front  of  the  camera  there  is 
a  lens  of  glass  ;  we  also  have  a  lens,  though  it  is  of  course  not 
of  glass,  but  of  a  better  and  softer  material.  Again,  in  the 
back  of  the  photographer's  camera  is  a  glass  plate,  uj^on  which 
the  picture  falls  and  is  taken  ;  in  the  same  way  in  our  eyes  the 
retina  serves  as  a  plate  upon  which  to  take  the  picture.  Anything 
which  we  see  forms  an  image  upon  the  retina.  This  image 
lasts  only  a  short  time,  but  long  enough  for  us  to  see  it.  Fi- 
nally, you  have  probably  noticed  how  the  photographer  puts  a 
black  cloth  over  his  head  and  the  back  of  the  camera  so  as  to 
keep  it  dark ;  the  middle,  colored  coat  of  the  eye — the  choroid 
— serves  to  darken  the  inside  of  the  eye. 

556.  The  Nerve  of  the  Eye. — Connected  with  the  back 
of  the  eye  is  a  portion  resembling  a  cord,  which  passes  to  the 
brain.  This  is  the  optic  nerve,  or  nerve  of  the  eye.  It  is  the 
nerve  which  connects  the  eye  with  the  portion  of  the  brain 
used  in  seeing.  On  arriving  at  the  eye  the  nerve  spreads  out 
in  the  interior  of  this  organ  and  forms  the  innermost  layer, 
which  is  called  the  retina.  By  looking  into  the  interior  of  the 
eye  with  an  instrument,  the  oculist  can  see  this  layer.  It  is 
shown  in  Fig.  95,  the  central  spot  being  where  the  nerve  enters 
the  eye  ;  at  this  point  blood-vessels  also  enter  the  eye  and  ther 
divide  and  spread  out  in  a  very  pretty  manner. 

557.  Blindness. — If  the  optic  nerves  of  both  sides  become 
diseased,  or  both  retinae  become  changed,  the  person  may  be- 
come totally  blind,  even  though  the  eye  appears  perfectly 
healthy  on  the  outside.  These  nerves  carry  the  sight  from  the 
eye  to  the  brain,  with  which  seeing  is  really  done. 

558.  Images. — The  w^ord  image  has  been  used  and  will  re- 
quire some  explanation.  If  you  look  into  a  mirror  you  will  see 
your  face — this  is  an  image  of  your  face.  The  light  strikes 
your  face  and  from  it  passes  to  the  mirror  ;  there  it  forms  an 
image  ;  from  this  image  the  light  passes  into  the  eye  and  forms 
another  image  upon  the  retina,  which  we  see. 


254  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND  HYGIENE. 

559.  The   Tears. — The   eye  is   constantly  kept  moist  by 
being  bathed  with  tears.     At  the  outer  part  of  each  eye  be- 


PlO.  95.— A  View  of  the  Interior  of  the  Eye,  as  Seen  with  the  Oculist's  Instrument. 


Fig.  96 — The  Lachrymal  Gland,  Sac,  and  Duct. 

tween  it  and  the  bone  forming  the  roof  of  the  orbit,  is  a  small 
body  called  the  lachrymal  gland  (Fig.  96),  meaning  tear-gland. 
This  body  is  constantly  pouring  the  tears  over  the  eye  so  as  to 


THE  SENSES.  255 

keep  it  moist.  Even  during  sleep  this  takes  place,  though 
there  is  then  much  less  produced.  When  we  are  awake  the  eye 
is  moving  constantly  and  this  movement  spreads  the  tears  over 
the  eyeballs.  After  the  tears  have  moistened  the  eye,  they  are 
collected  again  and  escajDe  into  the  nose.  If  you  look  at  your 
lids  you  will  notice  near  the  inner  corner  of  the  eye,  a  small 
spot  about  the  size  of  a  pin's  point.  There  is  one  of  these  on 
the  lower  lid  and  one  on  the  upper.  The  tears  pass  into  these 
openings  and  then  into  a  small  bag  near  the  nose,  called  the 
tear-sac ;  then  they  are  carried  down  into  the  nose  by  a  tube 
called  the  tear-duct,  or  nasal  duct  (Fig.  96).  You  have  noticed 
how  the  nose  runs  after  crying.  This  is  because  there  is  so 
much  more  of  this  fluid  discharged  into  the  tear-duct.  If  any- 
thing gets  into  the  eye,  the  lachrymal  gland  produces  more  of 
the  tears  and  they  flood  this  organ  until  the  intruding  body  is 
swept  away.  If  we  become  very  sad  or  very  angry,  tears  be- 
come very  abundant. 

560.  Care  of  the  Eyes. — There  is  no  organ  in  the  body 
which  contributes  so  much  to  our  comfort,  our  enjoyment,  and 
our  knowledge,  as  does  the  eye.  And  yet  the  eye  is  constantly 
being  misused.  If  you  have  good  eyesight  you  should  take 
care  of  your  eyes  so  that  it  does  not  get  bad,  and  if  your  eye- 
sight has  already  become  bad  you  should  see  that  it  does  not 
get  worse.  Some  of  the  most  common  rules  for  the  care  of  the 
eyesight  are  the  following : 

561.  After  having  read  a  long  time,  it  is  well  to  stop  and  rest 
the  eyes  ;  for  the  eyes,  like  any  other  part  of  the  body,  cannot 
be  used  continuously.  It  is  quite  natural  that  the  eyes  should 
feel  tired  and  begin  to  pain  after  we  have  used  them  a  long 
time  ;  this  is  nature's  sign  that  they  need  rest. 

562.  Never  read  in  a  poor  light.  You  may  be  finishing  a 
chapter  in  your  book  and  you  notice  that  it  is  beginning  to  get 
dark,  yet  you  do  not  stop  until  you  get  to  the  end  of  the  chap- 
ter even  though  you  strain  your  eyes.  This  is  wrong  and  the 
eyes  suffer  for  it. 


256  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 

563.  Never  read  very  Jine  print  if  you  can  help  it. 

564.  lu  reading,  have  the  light  come  over  your  shoulder  and 
thus  fall  upon  the  book  or  paper  without  going  directly  into 
your  eyes.  It  is  better  to  sit  with  your  back  to  the  window 
and  thus  have  the  light  come  over  your  shoulder,  and  preferably 
over  the  left  shoulder.  This  precaution  is  especially  useful  at 
night,  for  the  glare  of  the  gaslight  or  lamp  is  very  tiring  to  the 
eyes  ;  while  if  the  light  is  behind  you  and  falls  over  your  shoul- 
der there  is  just  as  much  light  upon  your  book  or  paper  and  yet 
the  eyes  are  spared  the  brightness. 

565.  Never  read  while  lying  upon  the  hack.  You  cannot  read 
comfortably  in  this  position  and  you  have  to  strain  the  ej^es 
so  that  it  is  very  tiring.  If  for  any  reason  you  must  read  lying 
down,  do  so  with  the  shoulders  and  head  raised  into  a  half- 
sitting  position. 

566.  There  may  be  some  excuse  for  business  men's  reading  in 
the  cars,  for  often  this  may  be  the  only  time  they  have  to  read 
the  daily  papers.  But  there  is  no  reason  why  children  should 
do  this.  It  is  injurious,  in  the  first  place,  because  the  light  is 
usually  poor,  but  chiefly,  because  the  constant  jolting  of  the 
car  makes  the  page  unsteady  and  requires  a  constant  strain 
upon  the  e^'es  to  keep  the  place. 

567.  Never  luash  your  eyes  with  water  ivhich  another  person  has 
used  on  his  face.  Never  use  a  towel  for  wiping  your  face,  which 
another  person  has  had  to  his  face,  unless  this  person  is  one  of 
your  family  and  you  know  he  has  no  eye  disease.  There  is  a 
disease  of  the  eyelids,  called  granular  lids,  which  is  very  con- 
tagious ;  many  children  contract  it  in  school  by  using  the 
towel  which  another  child  who  had  the  disease  has  used. 

568.  Do  not  stoop  ivhen  you  read,  but  raise  the  book  so  that  you 
can  hold  the  head  erect. 

569.  Weak  Sight. — Some  persons  are  born  with  weak  eyes 
— that  is,  they  do  not  see  so  well  as  other  people  and  have  to 
wear  glasses.  Some  of  these  people  are  called  near'- sighted, 
others  are  csd\edfar-sig?ited.     If  the  doctor  advises  you  to  wear 


THE   SENSES.  257 

glasses  you  sliould  not  be  ashamed  to  do  so.     Only  vain  per- 
sons object  to  wearing  glasses  when  they  are  necessary. 

570.  Old  Sight. — After  persons  are  about  forty  years  old 
they  can  still  see  distant  objects  well ;  but  they  need  glasses  in 
looking  at  near  objects. 

SYNOPSIS. 
The  Eye : 

1.  Protections . 

a.  Surrounded  by  bony  orbit. 

b.  Rests  on  cushion  of  fat. 

c.  Eyebrows — Keep  off  perspiration. 

d.  Eyehds.        )  g-^^^  ^^^  ^-^.^^  M^ht,  and  perspiration. 

e.  Eyelashes.    ) 

2.  Parts  : 

a.  Coats  : 

1.  Opaque  part  behind. 

a.  Sclerotic — Outer,  white,  dense. 

b.  Choroid — Middle,  colored,  brown. 

c.  Retina — Inner,  composed  of  nerve-tissue. 

2.  Transparent  part  in  front — Cornea. 

b.  Iris— Curtain  to  keep  out  light ;  in  centre  is 

c.  Pupil — Size  changes. 

d.  Lens. 

e.  Fluids  : 

1.  Aqueous  humor. 

2.  Vitreous  humor. 

/.  Muscles — Six  small  ones  attached  to  eye,  to  move  it 
in  all  directions. 

g.  Nerve — Attached  behind  and  passing  to  brain,  with 
which  we  really  see. 

h.  Lachrymal  gland — Near  the  eye,  gives  off  the  tears, 
which  keep  the  eyeball  moist,  collected  by  tear-sac  and  es- 
cape by  tear-duct  into  nose. 
Care  of  the  Eye  : 

1.  Requires  rest  when  used  for  long  time. 

2.  Good  light  in  reading. 

9.  Injurious  to  read  very  fine  print. 


258  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 

4.  Light  sliould  come  from  behind — over  shoulder. 

5.  Not  well  to  read  while  lying  down. 

6.  Not  well  to  read  while  riding  in  cars. 

7.  Kisk  of  contracting  eye  disease  in  using  towels  or  water 
that  other  j^eople  have  used,  to  eyes. 

8.  In  reading,  sit  erect. 

9.  Weak  sight  requires  glasses. 

10.  Old  sight  (after  forty)  requires  glasses. 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  In  what  are  the  eyes  placed?  2.  How  are  the. eyes  protected  ? 
3.  What  do  the  eyelids  do  ?  4.  Of  what  use  are  the  eyebrows  and 
eyelashes  ?  5.  Why  should  we  not  cut  the  eyelashes  or  the  eye- 
brows ?  6.  What  is  the  shape  of  the  eye  ?  7.  What  is  the  cornea  ? 
8.  How  many  layers  has  the  back  part  of  the  eye  ?  9.  What  is  the 
back  part  called  ?  10.  Which  is  the  most  important  of  these  three 
layers  ?  11.  What  is  the  pupil  ?  12.  What  is  the  iris  ?  13.  What 
is  the  lens?  14.  With  what  is  the  interior  of  the  eye  filled?  15. 
What  two  fluids  do  we  have  in  the  eye  ?  16.  Is  the  pupil  always  of 
the  same  size?  17.  When  does  it  become  large?  18.  When  does 
it  become  small  ?  19.  Of  what  use  is  the  pupil  ?  20.  How  many 
muscles  are  there  to  each  eye  ?  21.  Of  what  use  are  these  muscles  ? 
22.  What  is  the  cause  of  cross-eyes  ?  23.  With  what  part  of  the 
body  do  we  really  see,  the  eye  or  the  brain?  24.  How  is  this 
proven  ?  25.  What  instrument  may  our  eye  be  compared  with  ? 
26.  Explain  in  what  ways  our  eye  resembles  the  photographer's 
box  ?  27.  Where  is  the  nerve  of  the  eye  ?  28.  What  does  it  do  ? 
29.  What  do  we  mean  by  an  image  ?  30.  How  is  the  eye  kept 
moist  ?  31.  Where  is  the  body  which  produces  the  tears  ?  32. 
What  is  it  called  ?  33.  How  are  the  tears  collected  again  ?  34. 
What  becomes  of  them?  35.  Where  is  the  tear-sac?  36.  Where  is 
the  tear-duct  ?  37.  What  causes  the  tears  to  flow  more  than  usual  ? 
38.  Why  should  We  stop  after  we  have  read  a  long  time  ?  39.  What 
does  a  tired  feeling  or  pain  in  the  eye  after  reading  mean  ?  40. 
What  sort  of  light  should  be  avoided  ?  41.  Where  should  the  light 
come  from  when  you  read  ?  42.  Should  it  come  from  the  front  ? 
43.  Why  not?  44.  Can  a  jierson  read  lying  down,  without  injury 
to  his  eyes  ?     45.  Why  not  ?    46.  Why  should  we  not  read  on  the 


THE   SENSES. 


259 


cars.  47.  Why  shortlcl  we  not  use  towels  that  other  persons  have 
used  to  their  faces  ?  48.  What  disease  of  the  eyelids  may  be  con- 
tracted in  this  way  ?  49.  What  position  should  you  take  when  you 
read?  50.  What  is  meant  by  weak  sight?  51.  After  what  age  do 
people  need  glasses  for  reading  ? 


THE    EAR— THE    SENSE   OF    HEARING. 


571.  Like  the  eye,  the  ear  is  an  organ  which  adds  very  much 
to  our  comfort,  pleasure,  and  knowledge. 

572.  Parts  of  the  Ear.— The  ear  is  divided  into  three  parts  : 
An  outer,  a  middle,  and  an  inner. 

573.  The  Outer   Ear  is  the  part  seen  at  the  side  of  the 

head.  It  is  expanded  and  formed 
of  griatle,  covered  w-ith  skin.  Its 
shape  is  not  only  ornamental,  but 
useful,  for  it  serves  to  collect  the 
sound  and  lead  it  into  the  deeper 
parts  of  the  ear.  As  a  rule,  we 
cannot  move  the  ears ;  but  in  the 
lower  animals  the  ear  can  be  moved 
in  all  directions,  and  in  this  way 
these  animals  tell  where  the  sound 
comes  from.  From  this  outer  part 
of  the  ear  there  is  a  canal  about  an 
inch  long  which  leads  to  the  next 
part,  or  the  middle  ear.  In  this 
canal  is  usually  found  a  little  yel- 
lowish   substance,    which    w^e    call 

ear-wax,  which  serves  to  keep  the 
canal  soft  and  moist  and  to  keep  out  insects,  which  dislike  this 
wax. 

574.  The  Middle  Ear.— The  middle  part  of  the  ear  contains 
the  drum,  and  is  only  about  half  an  inch  across.     It  is  at  the 


Fig.  97.— The  Outer  Ear. 


260 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 


bottom  of  the  canal  which  leads  from  the  outer  ear.  Between 
the  two  a  sheet  of  membrane  is  stretched  which  is  called  the 
drum-memhrane.  In  the  middle  ear  itself  there  is 'nothing  but 
three  small  hones  which  are  joined  so  as  to  form  a  small  chain. 
One  end  of  this  chain  is  fastened  to  the  drum-membrane  and 
the  other  to  the  inner  ear,  so  that  these  bones  connect  the 
outer  ear  with  the  inner  ear. 


Fig.  98. — The  Different  Parts  of  the  Organ  of  Hearing.  1,  The  outer  ear;  2,  the  canal 
leading  from  the  outer  to  the  middle  ear  ;  3,  middle  ear  ;  4«  Eustachian  tube  ;  5,  nerve  of 
hearing  ;  6,  the  internal  ear. 


575.  Bones  of  the  Ear. — These  bones  are  shown  in  Fig. 
99,  and  are  very  interesting.  They  are  named,  according  to 
their  shape,  the  hammer,  the  anvil,  and  the  stirrup. 

576.  Connection  Between  the  Ear  and  the  Throat. 
— ^Perhaps  you  may  have  noticed  that  sometimes  when  you 
blow  your  nose  hard  there  is  a  stuffed  feeling  in  the  ears ;  or 
that  when  your  throat  was  sore  your  ears  were  also  affected. 
Sometimes,  too,  when  you  swallow  you  feel  something  in  your 


THE  SEI^SES. 


261 


ear.  This  is  because  there  is  a  tube  which  runs  from  the  throat 
to  the  middle  ear.  It  is  very  important  that  this  tube  remain 
open,  for  otherwise  air  cannot  enter  the  middle  ear  as  it  should 
and  we  do  not  hear  well.  This  tube  is  called  the  Enstachian 
tube,  after  the  physician  who  first  described  it  (Fig.  98,  4). 

577.  The  Internal  Ear. — This  part  of  the  ear  is  placed 
very  deeply  in  the  bone.  There  are  several  circular  canals  and 
a  wdnding  passage  like  a  staircase  hollowed  out  of  the  bone, 
and  in  these  the  inner  ear  is  contained  (Fig.  100).  In  these 
circular  canals  we  find  a  delicate  membrane  and  a  fluid  on 


Fig.  99.— The  Small  Bones  of  the  Ear.     A, 
The  hammer  ;  B,  the  anvil ;  C,  the  stin-up. 


Fig.  100.— The  Internal  Ear. 


each  side  of  it.     The  arrangements  in  the  internal  ear  are  very 
intricate. 

578.  The  Nerve  of  Hearing. — The  nerve  of  hearing  is  at- 
tached to  the  internal  ear  and  from  this  part  it  passes  to  the 
brain  (Fig.  98,  5) ;  it  therefore  conducts  the  sound  to  the  brain 
just  as  the  optic  nerve  conducts  sight  to  the  brain. 

579.  Sound. — Before  studying  how  we  hear,  it  is  necessary 
to  understand  hoiv  sound  is  produced.  Sound  is  produced 
whenever  the  air  is  made  to  vibrate — that  is,  whenever  the  air 
is  put  into  motion  resembling  waves.  You  will  understand 
this  better  if  you  think  for  a  moment  of  the  water :  Suppose 
when  a  pond  is  quiet,  you  throw  in  a  stone  ;  this  causes  a  mo- 


262  AKAT03IY,    PHYSIOLOGY,   AND   HYGIENE. 

tion  in  the  water  and  you  will  then  see  rings  start  out  from  the 
point  where  the  stone  fell,  these  rings  becoming  larger  and 
larger  until  they  are  finally  lost ;  but  all  the  time  these  rings 
or  very  small  waves  have  been  going  farther  and  farther  from 
the  centre.  Now  imagine  the  same  thing  occurring  in  the  air. 
If  you  strike  a  bell,  for  instance,  you  know  that  the  bell  is 
vibrating,  because  if  you  put  your  finger  on  it  you  can  feel 
this  motion.  This  motion  is  given  to  the  air,  and  the  air 
vibrates  in  the  same  way,  except  that  the  vibrations  travel 
through  the  air  to  our  ear. 

580.  Solids  conduct  sound  even  better  than  air  does  ;  if  you 
place  your  ear  at  one  end  of  the  table  and  strike  the  other  end 
the  sound  which  you  hear  will  be  very  loud. 

581.  How  We  Hear. — Now  that  we  know  what  sound  is, 
let  us  study  how  we  hear.  The  waves  of  sound  pass  through 
the  air  and  reach  the  outer  ear,  which  is  shaped  so  as  to  collect 
them  and  lead  them  into  the  canal  to  the  drum -membrane. 
The  waves  of  sound  beat  against  this  membrane  and  cause  it 
to  vibrate  ;  when  this  membrane  vibrates,  the  bones  of  the 
middle  ear  must  also  move  to  and  fro,  because  they  are  at- 
tached to  it.  The  bones  of  the  middle  ear  carry  the  vibra- 
tions to  the  internal  ear,  where  the  nerve  of  hearing  ends  in 
a  large  number  of  fine  hairs,  and  these  carry  the  sound  to  the 
brain. 

582.  Deaf-Mutes. — Persons  who  cannot  hear  Avhen  they 
are  children,  and  therefore  cannot  imitate  sounds  from  other 
people,  are  called  deaf-mutes.  These  unfortunate  people  have 
voices  just  like  others ;  but  they  cannot  hear  the  sounds,  and 
therefore  they  cannot  speak  in  the  ordinary  way.  But  they 
can  make  themselves  understood  in  two  ways :  One  way  is  by 
means  of  signs  and  letters  which  they  make  with  their  fingers, 
and  which  they  learn  to  do  very  rapidly.  The  second  method, 
and  the  most  recent,  is  to  teach  the  deaf-mutes  to  talk  by  hav- 
ing them  imitate  the  motion  of  our  lips.  It  is  surprising  how 
well  they  learn  to  do  this  ;  some  of  them  being  able  to  cari-y 


THE  SENSES.  263 

on  a  conversation  and  yet  not  hear  what  is  spoken,  but  under- 
standing" it  by  watching  the  movement  of  the  Hps. 

583.  Care  of  the  Ears. — We  should  never  tnj  to  pick  out 
the  wax  in  the  ears  with  hairpins  and  other  sharp  instruments. 
A  Uttle  wax  is  quite  natural,  and  if  too  much  is  there  it  is  best 
to  let  the  doctor  remove  it,  for  we  may  injure  the  delicate 
parts  of  the  ear. 

584.  If  ivater  gets  into  the  ear  during  bathing,  hold  the  head 
over  to  one  side  and  pull  the  outer  ear  up  and  down  gently, 
and  it  will  flow  out. 

585.  If  an  insect  should  crawl  into  the  ear,  a  little  soap  and 
water  will  kill  it,  and  at  the  same  time  bring  it  out. 

586.  A  blow  upon  the  side  of  the  head  or  over  the  ear  is 
dangerous,  because  it  sometimes  affects  the  brain  ;  it  may  also 
tear  the  delicate  drum-membrane  and  thus  interfere  with  good 
hearing. 

587.  The  ears  do  not  need  to  be  washed  out  when  they  are 
healthy  ;  simply  ivash  the  outer"  ear  and  do  not  meddle  with 
any  of  the  deeper  parts. 

SYNOPSIS. 
The  Ear :  ' 
Parts  : 

1.  Outer  ear — Collects  sound. 

2.  Canal  leading  from  outer  to  middle  ear. 

3.  Middle  ear : 

a.  Drum-membrane. 

h.  Bones  :  (1)  Hammer,  (2)  anvil,  (3)  stirrup. 

4.  Internal  ear — Nerve"  of  hearing  ends  here  in  fine  hairs, 
and  conveys  sound  to  brain. 

5.  Eustachian  tube — Leading  from  throat  to  middle  ear. 
How  we  Hear : 

1.  Vibration  of  sounding  body. 

2.  Vibration  of  air. 

3.  Collection  of  sound  by  outer  ear. 

4.  Conveyance  of  sound  by  canal. 

5.  Strikes  against  drum-membrane. 


264  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND  HYGIENE. 


1 


6.  Vibrations  conducted  by  chain  of  bones  to 

7.  Internal  ear,  wbere  they  strike  the  hair-like  ends  of 

8.  The  nerve  of  hearing,  which  conducts  sound  to 

9.  Brain. 

QUESTIOKS. 

1.  Into  what  three  parts  can  the  ear  be  divided?  2.  Why  is  the 
external  ear  shaped  as  it  is  ?  3.  Can  the  lower  animals  move  their 
ears  ?  4.  Of  what  use  is  this  to  them  ?  5.  What  leads  from  the 
outer  ear  down  to  the  middle  ear  ?  6.  What  is  ear-wax  ?  7.  What 
are  its  uses  ?  8.  What  is  another  name  for  the  middle  ear  ?  9. 
Where  is  the  drum-membrane?  10.  What  is  in  the  middle  ear? 
11.  How  are  the  bones  of  the  middle  ear  arranged  ?  12.  What  are 
the  names  given  to  the  bones  of  the  middle  ear  ?  13.  What  con- 
nects the  throat  with  the  middle  ear?  14.  Where  is  the  internal 
ear  ?  15.  What  is  its  form  ?  16.  What  is  in  the  internal  ear  ?  17. 
Where  is  the  nerve  of  hearing  ?  18.  What  does  it  do  ?  19.  How  is 
sound  produced  ?  20.  What  conducts  the  sound  ?  21.  Can  solids 
conduct  sound?  22.  How  can  you  prove  this?  23.  Explain  how 
we  hear?  24.  What  is  meant  by  a  deaf-mute?  25.  Has  a  deaf- 
mute  any  voice  ?  26.  Why  cannot  he  talk  without  special  teaching? 
27.  How  do  deaf-mutes  make  themselves  understood?  28.  Why 
should  we  not  try  to  pick  out  the  wax  in  our  ears  ?  29.  How  would 
you  get  rid  of  any  insect  that  crawled  into  the  ear  ?  30.  Why  is  a 
blow  upon  the  side  of  the  head  or  over  the  ear  dangerous  ? 


GLOSSAET. 


(Tlie  numbers  following  definitions  refer  to  pages  contmning  additional 

information.) 


Ab  do'men  (Latin,  abdere,  to  hide).  The  large  cavity  of  the  lower  part 
of  the  trunk,  below  the  diaphragm,  in  which  the  liver  and  the 
stomach,  intestines,  and  other  digestive  organs  are  placed  ;  the 
belly,  17,  18,  34. 

Ab  sorp'tion  (Latin,  ab,  and  sorbere,  to  suck  up).  The  process  of  suck- 
ing up  fluids  by  means  of  the  blood-vessels  or  lymphatics,  91. 

Ad'am's  Ap'ple.  The  prominent  angles  of  the  larynx  which  can  be 
seen  and  felt  in  the  front  of  the  neck.  It  is  said  to  have  been  thus 
named  from  an  old  belief  that  the  apple  stuck  in  Adam's  throat, 
thus  causing  this  projection,  126. 

Aii'co  HOL  (Arabic,  al  kohl,  a  powder  to  paint  the  eyebrows  with).  A 
colorless  fluid,  resembling  water  in  appearance,  which  forms  the  in- 
.    toxicating  portion  of  beer,  wine,  and  spirits,  156,  162,  164, 

Aiii  ment'a  ry  Ca-nal  (Latin,  alere,  to  feed).  The  series  of  hollow 
organs  in  which  the  food  is  digested,  or  prepared  for  absorption  by 
the  blood.  It  comprises  the  mouth,  pharynx,  oesophagus,  stomach, 
and  intestines,  74,  75. 

A  nat'o  my  (Greek,  ana,  up,  and  temnein,  to  cut).  The  study  of  the 
form  and  structure  of  the  different  parts  of  the  body,  13. 

A  or'ta  (Greek,  aeirein,  to  lift  up).  The  large  artery  which  arises 
from  the  left  ventricle  of  the  heart  and  passes  down  along  the  back- 
bone, giving  off  branches  in  its  course,  111,  112. 

Ap'o  plexy  (Greek,  apo,  away,  and  plessein,  to  strike).  A  sudden  loss 
of  consciousness,  due  to  the  bursting  of  a  blood-vessel  in  the 
brain,  117,  173. 

A' QUE  ous  (Latin,  aqua,  water).     Watery,  250,  251. 


266  GLOSSARY. 

A'que  ous  Hu'mor  (Latin,  Immere,  to  be  moist).  The  few  drops  of 
watery  fluid  wbicli  fill  the  space  between  the  cornea  and  the  lens  of 
the  eyeball,  250,  251. 

Ar'ter  y  (Greek,  aer,  air,  and  terein,  to  contain).  A  blood-vessel  which 
conducts  blood  from  the  heart  to  the  various  tissues.  The  ancients 
believed  that  the  arteries  were  filled  with  air  ;  hence  the  name,  100, 
112. 

Au'ri  CLE  (Latin,  auris,  the  ear  ;  auricula^  a  small  ear).  The  upper 
cavity  of  the  heart  on  each  side  ;  so  named  from  its  fancied  resem- 
blance to  a  dog's  ear,  108. 

Bi'CEPS  (Latin,  his,  twice,  and  caput,  head).  A  large  and  strong  mus- 
cle on  the  front  of  the  arm,  serving  to  bend  the  forearm  upon  the 
arm ;  so  called  because  it  is  attached  to  the  bone  by  two  portions 
called  heads,  51,  53,  54,  55. 

Bi  cus'piD  (Latin,  his,  twice,  and  cuspis,  point).  The  name  given  to 
the  fourth  and  fifth  teeth  on  each  side,  on  account  of  their  possess- 
ing two  elevations  upon  the  crown,  77. 

Bile  (Latin,  bilis,  anger,  bile).  The  gall ;  the  peculiar  yellowish  or 
greenish  fluid,  bitter  to  the  taste,  formed  in  the  liver,  and  emptied 
into  the  commencement  of  the  small  intestine,  89. 

Bow'  EL  (Latin,  hotellus,  a  small  sausage).  The  intestine  ;  the  long 
hollow  tube  into  which  the  partly-digested  food  passes  from  the 
stomach,  75,  85,  87. 

^        ,  I  (Greek,  hronclios,  windpipe).     The  first  two  divis- 

BrON  CHUS  \  .  r  .1  •    J    •  •        *  11 

^        ,        ,  ,       ,x    1         ions  of  the  wmdpipe,  one  passmg  to  each  lung, 
Bronchi  (plural)    ]         126,130,132. 

Bron'chi  al.  Relating  to  the  bronchi ;  bronchial  tubes,  the  smaller 
branches  of  the  bronchi  in  the  substance  of  the  lung,  126,  130,  132. 

Bun'ion.  An  enlargement  and  soreness  of  the  great  toe  at  the  joint 
connecting  it  with  the  body  of  the  foot,  25. 

Ca  nine'  (Latin,  canis,  dog).  The  sharp,  pointed  tooth  on  each  side 
of  the  incisors  ;  so  called  because  it  is  very  prominent  in  the  dog, 
77. 

Cap'il  la  ries  (Latin,  capillus,  hair).  The  smallest  blood-vessels,  con- 
necting the  arteries  and  veins  ;  so  called  on  account  of  their  mi- 
nute, "  hair-like  "  size,  110,  112,  113. 

Cap'su  lar  (Latin,  capsnla,  a  small  box).  A  name  used  to  qualify  cer- 
tain ligaments  which  surround  joints  "like  a  box,"  43,  44. 

Car  bon'ic  Acid  Gas  (Latin,  carbo,  coal).     The  gas  which  is  present  in 


GLOSSARY.  267 

the  air  breathed  out  by  animals;  it  represents  waste  in  animals, 
but  serves  as  food  for  plants,  103,  110,  113,  134,  135,  159. 

Car  niv'o  rous  (Latin,  carniSy  flesh,  and  vorare^  to  devour).  Subsisting 
largely  or  entirely  on  flesh,  64. 

Car'pus  (Greek,  carpos^  the  wrist).  The  collection  of  small  bones, 
eight  in  number,  forming  the  wrist,  20,  22,  35. 

Car'ti  lage  (Latin,  cartilago,  gristle).  A  solid  elastic  substance  found 
in  joints,  in  the  nose  and  elsewhere  ;  gristle,  25,  43,  46,  244. 

Cell  (Latin,  cella^  a  store-room).  A  small  body,  often  rounded,  form- 
ing one  of  the  simplest  parts  of  which  the  body  is  built  up  ;  cells 
and  fibres  make  up  the  greater  part  of  the  body,  16,  82,  89,  161,  219. 

Cer'e  bel'lum  (Latin,  diminutive  of  cerebrum,  the  brain).  The  little 
brain,  placed  beneath  the  back  part  of  the  rest  of  the  brain,  217, 
218,  219,  221. 

Cer'e  brum  (Latin).  The  larger  portion  (seven-eighths)  of  the  brain, 
317,  218,  219,  221. 

Chest  (Latin,  data,  a  box).  The  upper  cavity  of  the  trunk  inclosed  by 
the  breast-bone,  ribs,  and  spinal  column,  and  containing  the  heart 
and  lungs,  17,  18,  20,  22,  33,  138. 

Chlo'ral  (Greek,  cMoros,  pale  green).  A  drug  used  to  produce  sleep, 
204. 

Cho'roid  (Greek,  chorion,  a  membrane).  The  middle  coat  of  the  eye- 
ball, 250,  253. 

Circula'tion  (Latin,  circulus,  a  ring).  The  course  of  the  blood 
through  the  heart  and  blood-vessels  of  the  body  ;  from  heart  to  ar- 
teries, through  capillaries  to  veins,  back  to  heart,  100,  105,  109, 
110. 

Clay'i  CLE  (Latin,  clavicula^  a  little  key,  from  clavis,  key).  The  long, 
slender  bone  extending  across  the  upper  part  of  the  front  of  the 
chest,  the  collar-bone,  20,  22,  32,  34. 

Clot.  The  dark-red,  semi-solid  mass  which  results  when  blood  is 
withdrawn  from  the  blood-vessels,  104. 

Co'cA  LNE  (Spanish,  coca,  a  Peruvian  plant).  A  drug  used  to  make  cer 
tain  parts  insensible  to  pain,  184. 

Com  bus'tion  (Latin,  comhurere,  to  burn).  A  burning-up  ;  applied  to 
the  process  taking  place  in  the  body  by  which  the  tissues  are  con- 
sumed, to  be  replaced  by  elements  in  the  blood,  143. 

Corn  (Latin,  conm,  a  horn).  A  small  elevation  due  to  thickening  of 
the  outer  layer  of  the  skin  ;  corns  usually  appear  upon  the  toes  and 
are  caused  by  pressure  from  shoes  which  do  not  fit  properly  or  are 
too  tight,  25. 


268  GLOSSARY. 

Cor'ne  a  (Latin,  cornu,  a  horn).  The  transparent  membrane  which 
forms  tlie  front  of  the  eyeball,  250. 

Cor'o  nal  (Latin,  corona,  crown).  A  name  given  to  the  suture  which 
unites  the  frontal  with  the  parietal  bones,  because  the  crown  of  a 
king  rests  in  part  upon  this  line,  42. 

Cor'pus  cles,  Blood  (Latin,  corpus,  a  body  ;  corpusculum,  a  small 
body).  The  small  bodies,  some  red,  some  white,  found  floating  in 
the  fluid  part  of  the  blood,  100,  101. 

Cos  ]vrET'ic  (Greek,  kosmos,  ornament).  Preparations  which  when  ap- 
plied to  the  skin  are  supposed  to  increase  its  beauty,  239. 

Cra'ni  hm  (Latin).    That  portion  of  the  skull  which  incloses  the  brain ,  27. 

Crown  (Latin,  corona,  a  crown).  The  top  of  the  skull,  16.  Also  the 
part  of  the  tooth  which  projects  into  the  mouth,  76. 

Crys'tal  line  (Latin,  crystallum,  a  crystal).  Like  glass  ;  applied  to  the 
lens  in  the  interior  of  the  eye  on  account  of  its  transparent  proper- 
ties, 250,  251. 

Dan'druff.     The  small  scales,  corresponding  to  the  outer  layer  of  the 

skin,  which  fall  off  the  scalp,  234. 
Deaf'  mute,     A  person  who  is  deaf  and  dumb,  262. 
De  lir'i  um  (Latin,  delirare,  to  wander  in  mind).  A  condition  in  which 

the  ideas  of  a  person  are  wild  and  wandering,  176,  226. 
De  lir'i  um  Tre'mens  (Latin,  tremere,  to  tremble).     The  condition  of 

being  out  of  the  mind,  which  results  from  over-indulgence  in  alco- 
holic drink,  176,  226. 
Den'tine  (Latin,  dens,  a  tooth).     The  hard  material  which  forms  the 

main  part  of  the  tooth  between  the  pulp  within  and  the  enamel  on 

the  surface,  76. 
Di'aphragm  (Greek,  diaphrassein,  to  divide  by  a  partition).  The  sheet 

of  muscular  tissue  which  separates  the  chest  from  the  abdomen,  34, 

56. 
Digest'  (Latin,  digerere^  to  separate).     To  separate  the  food  into  nutri- 
tious juices  which  can  be  absorbed  by  the  system  and  matters  which 

are  cast  off,  74,  91. 
DisLO  ca'tion  (Latin,  dislocare,  to  put  out  of  place).     The  separation, 
'   '     by  accident,  of  the  ends  of  bones  forming  a  joint,  44. 
Drum  Mem'brane.  The  small  sheet  of  tissue  which  separates  the  outer 

from  the  middle  ear,  and  serves  to  transmit  sounds  to  the  interior 

of  the  ear,  260,  262. 
Duct  (Latin,  ducere,  to  lead).   A  narrow  tube,  such  as  the  bile-duct,  94, 

nasal  duct,  254,  255. 


GLOSSARY.  269 

Duo  de'num  (Latin,  duodeni,  twelve  each).     The  first  portion  of  the 

small  intestine  ;  so  called  because  its  length  is  about  twelve  fingers' 

breadth,  75,  85. 
Dys  pep'si  a  (Greek,  dijs,  difficult,  and  peptein,  to  digest).    A  disordered 

state  of  the  organs  of  digestion  giving  rise  to  difficult  or  painful 

digestion,  78,  93,  170. 

En  am'el.     The  hard  layer  which  covers  the  crown  of  the  tooth,  76. 

Epi  dem'ic  (Greek,  ejndemos,  among  the  people).  A  disease  which  at- 
tacks a  large  number  of  persons  of  one  neighborhood  at  the  same 
time,  70. 

Epiglot'tis  (Greek,  epi,  above,  and  glotta,  the  tongue).  A  leaf- shaped 
piece  of  cartilage  which  covers  the  entrance  to  the  larynx  during 
swallowing,  127. 

Eu  sta'ciii-an  Tube.  The  tube  which  leads  from  the  throat  to  the 
middle  ear,  so  called  from  the  physician  who  first  described  it,  261. 

Ex  pi-ra'tion.     The  act  of  breathing  out,  125,  128. 

Expire'  (Latin,  ex,  out,  and  spirare,  to  breathe).  To  breathe  out,  125, 
128. 

Faint'ing.     Loss  of  consciousness,  due  usually  to  an  interference  with 

the  circulation,  114. 
FanGo     The  long,  pointed  end  or  root  of  a  tooth,  76,  77. 
Farina'ceous  (Latin, /<2?'mr-t,  flour).     Containing  starch  ;  starchy,  64, 
Far'-sigiited.     Having  one  of  the  forms  of  defective  sight,  256. 
Fe'mur  (Latin).     The  thigh-bone,  20,  22,  35,  86. 
Fermen  ta'tion  (Latin,  fervere,  to  be  boiling  hot).     The  change  by 

which  starch  or  sugar  in  a  liquid  is  converted  into  alcohol  and  a 
.  gas,  159,  102. 
Fi'bre  (Latin,  ^6r«,  a  thread).     One  of  the  tiny  threads  of  which  a  large 

portion  of  the  body  is  formed,  16,  47, 
Fib'ula  (Luiin,  fibula,  a  clasp).     The  outer,  long,  slender  bone  of  the 

leg,  20,  22,  36. 
Flesh'y.     Applied  to  animal  food,  especially  meat,  in  distinction  from 

vegetable  food,  47,  64. 
Fract'ure  (Lsiim,frange7'e,  to  break).    The  breaking  of  a  bone,  25,  26. 
Front'al  (Latin,  frons,  the  forehead).     Belonging  to  the  forehead,  22, 

27,  29, 
Func'tion  (Latin,  functio,  performing).     The  special  work  of  any  or- 
gan of  the  body,  15,  211. 

Gall.     The  bile,  89,  . 


270  GLOSSARY. 

Gas'tric  (Greek,  gaster,  the  stomach).     Belonging  to  the  stomach,  82. 

Gastric  Juice.  The  fluid  secreted  by  the  stomach,  which  digests 
fleshy  food,  82,  83. 

Gel'a  tin  (Latin,  gelare,  to  congeal).  An  animal  substance  found  in 
bones,  cartilage,  and  other  tissues,  which  dissolves  in  boiling  w^ater, 
and  forms  a  firm  jelly  upon  cooling,  24. 

Gland  (Latin,  glans,  an  acorn).  An  organ  which  separates  certain 
substances  from  the  blood,  78,  79,  254. 

Gout  (Latin,  gutta,  drop).  A  disorder  of  the  system  in  which  one  of 
the  prominent  symptoms  is  a  painful  affection  of  the  joints,  90. 

Gran'ular  Lids  (Latin,  grannm^  grain).  A  contagious  affection  of 
the  eyelids,  so  called  because  the  lids,  when  turned  out,  often  pre- 
sent the  appearance  of  being  studded  with  small  grain-like  bodies, 
256. 

Gris'tle.     Cartilage,  25,  43,  46,  244. 

Groin.  The  depression  on  each  side  between  the  abdomen  and  thigh, 
just  below  the  hip,  17,  18. 

Gul'let  (Latin,  gula,  throat).  The  tube  between  the  throat  and  stom- 
ach, serving  for  the  passage  of  food  and  drink  ;  the  oesophagus,  75, 
79,  80,  129. 

Hang'nail.     a  small  flake  of  skin  which  hangs  from  the  side  or  root 

of  a  nail,  240. 
Hem'i  spheres  (Greek,  hemi,  half,  and  sphaira,  a  sphere).     The  halves 

into  which  the  cerebrum  is  divided,  215,  218. 
Hem'or  rhage  (Greek,  haima,  blood,  and  regnnmi,  to  burst).     The  es- 
cape of  blood  from  the  blood-vessels  ;  any  bleeding,  116. 
Her  biv'o  rous  (Latin,  herba,  herb,  and  vorare^  to  devour).     Subsisting 

on  vegetable  food,  64. 
Hip.     The  projection  on  each  side  of  the  body  just  above  the  thigh, 

formed  by  the  hip-bone,  17,  18. 
Hops.     A  plant,  the  flowers  of  which  are  used  in  flavoring  beer,  165. 
Hu'man  (Latin,  homo,  man).     Relating  to  man,  13. 
Hu'me  rus  (Latin).     The  thigh-bone,  20,  22,  34. 
Hu'mor  (Latin,  humere,  to  be  moist).     An  animal  fluid  ;  especially  the 

fluid  contents  of  the  eyeball,  250,  251. 
Hy'gi  ene  (Greek,  Ilygeia,  the  goddess  of  health).     The  science  which 

treats  of  the  preservation  of  health  and  the  prevention  of  disease,  13. 

In  ci'sor  (Latin,  incidere,  to  cut  in).  The  four  front  teeth  in  both  jaws  ; 
they  have  sharp,  chisel-like  edges,  77. 


GLOSSARY.  271 

In'dex  Fin'ger  (Latin,  indicare,  to  point  out).  The  forefinger;  the 
linger  next  to  tlie  tlmmb,  18,  22. 

In  Di  GESTi-BLE  (Latiu,  in,  not,  and  digerei^,  to  separate).  Not  easily 
converted  by  the  organs  of  digestion  so  as  to  be  fit  for  absorption  by 
the  blood  and  tissues,  84. 

Indiges'tion  (Latin,  in,  not,  and  digerere,  to  separate).  A  condition 
in  which  the  food  is  not  properly  digested,  or  digested  with  diffi- 
culty, 78,  92. 

In  spire'  (Latin  in,  in,  and  spirare,  to  breathe).     To  draw  in  breath, 

In  spi  ra'tion  (Latin,  in,  in,  and  spirare,  to  breathe).  The  act  of  in- 
spiring or  drawing  in  breath,  125. 

Instep.     The  raised  portion  of  the  foot  near  the  ankle,  17,  18,  36. 

In-tel'li-gence  (Latin,  intelligere,  to  understand).  The  power  which 
enables  us  to  judge  and  understand,  220. 

Intes'tine  (Latin,  intm^  on  the  inside).  The  hollow  tube  which  fills 
the  greater  part  of  the  abdomen,  and  forms  the  continuation  of  the 
digestive  organs  beyond  the  stomach  ;  the  bowels,  75,  85. 

In  tox'i  gating  (Latin,  toxkum,  an  arrow  poison).  Making  drunk  ; 
capable  of  bringing  under  the  ejffects  of  alcohol,  156,  175. 

Involuntary  (Latin,  in,  not,  and  voluntas,  will).  Not  dependent 
upon  the  will,  50,  133. 

I'ris  (Latin,  iris,  the  rainbow).  The  colored  membrane  in  the  front 
portion  of  the  eye  perforated  in  its  centre  by  the  pupil,  250,  251. 

Jaun'dice  (Latiu,  galbus,  yellow).     The  yellowish  discoloration  of  the 

skin  and  of  the  white  of  the  eye,  due  to  bile  being  present  in  the 

blood,  89. 
Joint  (Latin,  jungere,  to  bind  together).     The  place  of  meeting  or  union 

of  two  or  more  bones,  41,  42,  43,  44. 
Judg'ment  (Latin,  judicare,  from  jus,  law,  and  dicare,  to   proclaim). 

The  faculty  of  judging  or  deciding  correctly,  220. 

Kidney.  An  important  organ  placed  in  the  back  part  of  the  abdom- 
inal cavity  ;  it  separates  certain  refuse  materials  from  the  blood. 
There  are  two  kidneys,  145. 

Lach'ry  mal  (Latin,  lacrima,  a  tear).     Forming  tears,  29,  254. 
Lach'ry  mal  Duct.     The  small  canal   which  conveys  the  tears  from 

the  eye  to  the  interior  of  the  nose,  254. 
Lach'ry  MAL  Gland.     The  small  organ,  placed  just  above  the  eye, 

which  produces  the  tears,  254. 


272  GLOSSARY. 

Lac'te  als  (Latin,  lac,  milk).  The  small  vessels  (part  of  the  lym- 
phatics) which  carry  the  nutritious  juices  representing  the  digested 
food,  from  the  intestines  to  the  blood,  emptying  into  a  large  vein  of 
the  neck,  91,  118,  119. 

Lam'b  doid  (Greek  letter  lambda,  A).  The  name  given  to  the  suture 
which  connects  the  occipital  with  the  parietal  bones,  on  account  of 
its  resemblance  in  shape  to  the  Greek  letter  lambda,  A,  42. 

Lar'ynx  (Greek,  larugx^  a  whistle).  The  upper  part  of  the  air-passage 
in  which  the  voice  is  produced,  125,  126,  132. 

Lean  (Latin,  lenis,  soft,  moderate).     Thin,  devoid  of  fat,  48. 

Lens  (Latin,  lens,  a  lentil).  A  transparent  body  with  curved  surfaces, 
which  influence  the  course  of  rays  of  light.  The  lens  of  the  eye  is 
the  transparent  body  placed  just  behind  the  iris  and  pupil,  which 
causes  images  to  fall  upon  the  retina  or  nervous  layer  of  the  eye- 
ball, 250,  251. 

Lig'a  ment  (Latin,  ligare,  to  bind).  The  tough  bands  or  sheets  of  tis- 
sue which  cover  the  joints  and  bind  the  ends  of  the  bones  together, 
43,44,46. 

Limbs.  The  extremities  of  the  human  body  attached  to  the  trunk  on 
each  side,  above  and  below  ;  there  are  two  upper  and  two  lower 
limbs,  18. 

Liq'uor  (Latin,  liquere,  to  be  liquid).  A  name  given  to  strong  alcoholic 
fluids,  such  as  whiskey,  brandy,  rum,  etc.,  163,  164,  166. 

Little  Finger.  The  smallest  finger  ;  situated  on  the  opposite  side  of 
the  hand  from  the  thumb,  18. 

Lungs.  The  organ  of  breathing,  occupying  the  greater  part  of  the 
cavity  of  the  chest,  130,  131,  132,  145,  149. 

Lymph  (Latin,  lymplia,  pure  water).  The  colorless  or  white  fluid  con- 
tained in  the  lymphatics,  117,  118. 

Lym  phat'ics  (Latin,  lympha,  pure  water).  The  small  vessels  which 
run  from  the  tissues  and  finally  empty  into  two  large  veins  in  the 
neck ;  contain  lymph,  117,  118. 

Mag'nified  (Latin,  magnus,  great,  ixnAfacere,  to  make).  Made  to  ap- 
pear larger  than  in  reality,  101. 

Ma'lar  (Latin,  mala,  the  cheek).  The  bone  which  forms  the  promi- 
nence of  the  cheek,  22,  29,  30. 

Malt.  Sprouting  barley  which  has  been  dried  by  heat  so  as  to  change 
its  starch  into  sugar  ;  it  is  used  in  brewing  beer,  165. 

Mar'row.  a  soft,  fatty  substance  contained  in  the  central  cavity  of 
bones,  24, 


GLOSSARY.  273 

Me  dul'la  (Latin,  medulla,  marrow,  pith).  The  portion  of  the  brain 
which  connects  it  with  the  spinal  cord,  217,  218.  219,  221. 

Meta  cak'pus  (Greek,  m€to,  beyond,  and  karpos,  the  wrist) .  That 
part  of  the  skeleton  of  the  hand  between  the  wrist  and  the  fingers, 
20,  22,  35. 

IVIeta  tar'sus  (Greek,  meta^  beyond,  and  iarsos,  ankle).  That  part  of 
the  skeleton  of  the  foot  between  the  heel  and  the  toes,  20,  22,  36. 

Mi'cRO  SCOPE  (Greek,  mikros,  small,  and  skopein,  to  view).  An  optical 
instrument,  consisting  of  a  combination  of  lenses,  used  to  view  ob- 
jects which  are  too  small  to  be  seen  by  the  naked  eye,  101. 

Mid'dle  Flnger.  The  finger  placed  midway  between  the  thumb  and 
little  finger  ;  the  third  finger,  18. 

Mm'ER  AL  (Latin,  mina,  amine).  Derived  from  the  inorganic  or  life- 
less world  ;  such  as  the  rocks,  64. 

Mo'lars  (Latin,  molere,  to  grind  in  a  mill).  The  rear  three  teeth  in 
both  jaws,  used  in  grinding  the  food  into  small  particles,  77. 

Mor'phine  (Greek,  Morpheus,  the  god  of  sleep).  A  white  substance 
which  constitutes  the  narcotic  principle  in  opium,  201,  202. 

Mu'cous  JVIem'brane  (Latin,  mucosus,  from  mucus,  slime,  and  mem- 
brafia,  a  skin).  The  soft  layer  of  tissue  which  lines  the  alimentary 
and  breathing  channels  ;  secretes  mucus,  81. 

Mucus  (Latin,  mucus,  slime).  A  slippery  substance  secreted  by  the 
mucous  membranes  to  keep  them  moist,  82. 

Mus'cles  (Latin,  musculus,  a  muscle).  The  fleshy  organs  which  move 
the  various  parts  of  the  body,  46,  47. 

Nar  cot'ic  (Greek,  narke,  numbness).  A  drug  which  relieves  pain  and 
produces  sleep  ;  when  given  in  large  quantity,  produces  insensi- 
bility and  even  death,  194,  202. 

Na'sal  (Latin,  nasus,  the  nose).     Pertaining  to  the  nose,  22,  29,  30, 

355. 
Near-sighted.     A  form  of  weak  sight  in  which  objects  can  only  be 

seen  clearly  when  held  very  close,  256. 
Nerves  (Latin,  nerinis^  a  nerve).     The  thread-like  bundles  of  fibres 

w^hich  run  from  the  brain  and  spinal  cord  to  different  parts  of  the 

body  and  establish  communication,  52,  214,  219,  223. 
Ni'tro  gen  (Latin,  nitrum,  nitre,  and  genere,  to  produce).     The  gas 

which  forms   four-fifths  of  the  atmosphere  ;    serves  to  dilute  the 

oxygen,  102. 
Nos'tril.     One  of  the  two  oval  apertures  at  the  front  of  the  nose 

through  which  air  is  drawn,  244, 


274  GLOSSARY. 

Oc'ci  PUT  (Latin,  oc,  back,  and  caput,  the  head).     The  hind  part  of  the 

head  or  of  the  skull,  20,  22. 
Oc  cip'i  TAL  (Latin,  oc,  back,  and  caput,  the  head).     Referring  to  the 

back  part  of  the  head,  27,  29. 
Oc'u  LIST  (Latin,  oculus,  the  eye).     One  who  treats  diseases  of  the  eye, 

253. 
(E  soph' A  Gus  (Greek,  oiso  (future  of),  to  carry,  and  2y7iagein,  to  eat). 

The  passage  for  food,  leading  from  the  throat  to  the  stomach,  75, 

79,  80,  129. 
O'pi  UM.     A  narcotic  drug  obtained  from  the  fruit  of  the  poppy-plant, 

200. 
Op'tic  (Greek,  opticus).     Pertaining  to  sight.     Ojytic  nerve,  the  nerve  of 

sight,  250,  253. 
Orb'its  (Latin,  oiMs,  a  circle).     The  cavities  in  which  the  eyes  are 

placed,  30,  249. 
Or'gan  (Latin,  organum,  an  organ).     A  part  of  the  body  which  per- 
forms some  special  work  ;  the  eye  is  the  organ  of  sight,  15. 
Ox'y  gen  (Greek,  oxus,  acid,  and  genein,  to  produce).     An  important 

gas  which  forms  one-fifth  of  the  atmosphere,  and  serves  to  sustain 

life,  102,  103,  110,  134,  135,  145. 

Pan'cre  as  (Greek,  pan,  all,  and  Tcreas^  flesh).  An  important  organ  of 
digestion,  situated  in  the  abdominal  cavity  and  pouring  its  secre- 
tion, the  pancreatic  fluid,  into  the  small  intestine,  75,  90. 

Pa  ral'y  sis  (Greek,  para,  beside,  and  luein,  to  loosen).  Loss  of  the 
power  of  moving  a  greater  or  lesser  number  of  muscles,  53,  205. 

Par'alyzed  (Greek,  para,  beside,  and  luein,  to  loosen).  Affected  with 
loss  of  the  power  of  moving  a  greater  or  lesser  number  of  the  mus- 
cles, 53,  205. 

Pa  ri'e  TAL  (Latin,  paries^  a  wall).  A  name  given  to  the  two  bones 
which  form  the  roof  of  the  skull,  27,  29,  42. 

Pa  rot'id  (Greek,  _?;«?'«,  beside,  and  ous,  the  ear).  A  gland  situated  be- 
low and  in  front  of  the  ear ;  secretes  part  of  the  saliva,  78. 

Pa  tel'la  (Latin,  patina,  a  pan).     The  knee-pan,  20,  22,  36. 

Pec'to  ralis  (Latin,  pectus,  the  breast).  The  triangular  muscle  on 
each  side  of  the  front  of  the  chest,  which  draws  the  arm  inward,  54, 
55. 

Pel'vis  (Latin,  pelvis,  a  basin).  The  bony  basin  at  the  lower  part  of  the 
trunk  to  which  the  thigh-bones  are  attached,  22,  32. 

Pep'sin  (Greek,  pepsis,  digestion).  A  substance  present  in  the  gastric 
juice,  which  digests  fleshy  food,  83. 


GLOSSARY.  275 

Peri  cak'di  um  (Greek,  7?e?•^,  aroimtl,  :ind  kardia,  the  heart).     The  sac 

wliich  surrounds  tlie  heart,  107. 
Peri  os'te  um   (Greek,  jieri,   around,  and  osteon,  a  bone).     A  tou<5h 

membrane  closely  covering  the  bones,  24. 
Peritonk'um  (Greek,  j?c/7,    around,    and   tcinein,   to   stretch).     The 

smooth  membrane  which  covers  the  abdominal  organs  and  lines  the 

cavity  of  the  abdomen,  81,  86. 
Per  sn  ra'tion  (Latin,  per,  through,  and  spirare,  to  breathe).     The 

watery  fluid  given  off  from  the  skin  ;  when  visible  it  is  called  scn- 

idble  ;  when  invisible,  insensible.     The  sweat,  149,  235. 
Pha  lan'ges — Plural  of  phalanx  (Greek,  phalanx,  a  rank).     The  small 

bones  forming  the  fingers  and  toes,  20,  22,  35,  36. 
Piiar'ynx  (Greek,  phavugx,  the  throat).    The  cavity  at  the  back  of  the 

mouth  through  which  the  food  passes  on  its  Avay  to  the  oesophagus 

or  gullet  ;  the  throat,  75. 
PiiYSi  ol'o  gy  (Greek,   phusis,   nature,   and   logos,   a  discourse).     The 

study  of  how  beings  live,  13. 
Plas'ma  (Greek,  pkissein,  to  mould).    The  liquid  part  of  the  blood,  100, 

102. 
Pleu'ra  (Greek,  jdeura,  the  side).     The  smooth  membrane  which  cov- 
ers the  lungs  and  lines  the  cavity  of  the  chest,  133. 
Pores   (Latin,  jjorus,  a  passage).     The  minute  openings  in  the  skin 

through  which  the  perspiration  escapes,  145,  149,  235,  238. 
Pul'mo  na  ry  (Latin,  pulino,  a  lung).     Pertaining  to  the  lungs,  109. 
Pulp  (Latin,  puljm,  pulp).     The  soft  material  which  fills  the  central 

space  in  the  teeth,  76. 
Pulse  (Latin,  pulsus,  the  pulse).     The  beating  of  the  arteries,  113. 
Pupil  (Latin,  pzipilla,  pupil).     The  opening  in  the  iris  through  which 

light  passes  into  the  interior  of  the  eye,  251. 
Pylo'rus  (Greek,  puloros,  a  gate-keeper).     The  opening  in  the  stomach 

by  which  food  passes  into  the  intestines,  75,  80,  85. 

Ra'di  us  (Latin,  radivs,  a  rod).    The  outer  bone  of  the  forearm,  20,  22,  34. 

Rea'son  (Latin,  ratio,  reason).  The  power  by  which  we  distinguish 
right  from  wrong  and  are  able  to  employ  proper  means  for  the  at- 
tainment of  particular  ends,  220. 

Re'flex  Action  (Latin,  re,  back,  and  fledere,  to  turn).  Actions  ex- 
cited without  our  being  conscious  of  them,  223. 

Respire'  (Latin,  re,  again,  and  spirare,  to  breathe).     To  breathe,  125. 

Respi  ra'tion  (Latin,  re,  again,  and  spirare,  to  breathe).  The  act  of 
breathing,  125. 


276  GLOSSAEY. 

Ret'ina  (Latin,  rete,  a  net).  The  innermost  or  nervous  layer  of  the 
eyeball  which  receives  the  impressions  of  sight,  250,  253. 

Rib.     One  of  the  long,  slender  bones  inclosing  the  chest,  20,  30,  33. 

Ring  Finger.  The  finger  next  to  the  little  finger,  upon  which  rings 
are  usually  worn,  18. 

Sag'it  tal  (Latin,  sagiiia^  an  arrow).  Pertaining  to  an  arrow  ;  a  name 
given  to  the  suture  which  unites  the  parietal  bones,  because  it  meets 
the  coronal  suture  as  an  arrow  meets  the  bow,  42. 

Sa  li'va  (Latin,  saliva,  spittle).  The  liquid  secreted  by  the  glands  near 
the  mouth,  emptied  into  this  cavity  and  serving  to  keep  the  mouth 
moist  and  to  form  a  mass  with  the  food  ;  the  spittle,  78,  247. 

Sal'i  va  ry.     Pertaining  to  saliva  or  spittle,  78. 

Scalp  (Latin,  scal2)ere,  to  carve).  The  skin  covering  the  top  of  the 
head,  17. 

ScAP'u  LA  (Latin).     The  shoulder-blade,  20,  22,  32,  34. 

Scarf'  skin.     The  outer  layer  of  the  skin,  234. 

Scent  (Latin,  sentirey  to  smell).     Odor  ;  smell,  246. 

Sclerot'ic  (Greek,  skleros,  hard).  The  firm,  white,  outer  layer  of  the 
eyeball,  250. 

Sen  sa'tion  (Latin,  sentire,  to  feel).  Feeling  caused  by  external  ob- 
jects. Nerves  of  sensation  are  those  which  carry  impressions  of 
touch,  pain,  heat,  etc.,  from  the  various  organs  of  the  body  to  the 
brain,  223,  233. 

Senses  (Latin,  sentire,  to  feel).  The  faculty  of  obtaining  information 
of  the  exterior  world  by  means  of  certain  organs  ;  the  five  senses 
are,  feeling,  seeing,  hearing,  smelling,  and  tasting,  232. 

Sen  si  tive  (Latin,  sentire,  to  feel).    Having  a  high  degree  of  feeling,  233. 

Skel'e-ton  (Greek,  skellein,  to  dry  up).  The  system  of  bones  which 
constitutes  the  framework,  20,  21,  22,  47. 

Skull.     The  bones  of  the  head  taken  collectively,  27,  28,  29. 

Sole  (Latin,  solea).     The  under  surface  of  the  foot,  17,  18,  36. 

Sol'u  ble  (Latin,  solverey  to  dissolve).  Capable  of  being  dissolved  in  a 
fluid. 

Spe'cial  Senses  (Latin,  specialise  a  particular  kind).  The  sense  of 
taste,  smell,  sight,  and  hearing,  as  distinguished  from  the  general 
one  of  feeling,  232. 

Spinal  (Latin,  spina,  the  spine).  Relating  to  the  spine  or  backbone. 
Spinal  canal,  the  canal  running  through  the  back  part  of  the  back- 
bone or  spine,  in  which  is  contained  the  soft  bar  of  nervous  tissue 
called  the  spinal  cord,  22,  30,  32,  214,  221,  222, 


GLOSSARY.  277 

Spleen  (Latin,  splen).  A  large,  flat  body,  composed  largely  of  blood, 
placed  on  the  left  side  of  the  abdominal  cavity,  75,  93. 

Squint.     The  condition  of  being  cross-eyed,  252. 

Starch.  The  white  grains  found  in  wheat,  potatoes,  and  many  other 
plants,  64,  65,  158,  161. 

Ster'num  (Greek,  sternon,  the  breast).    The  breast-bone,  20,  22,  32,  34. 

Stim'u  lant  (Latin,  siimidare,  to  incite).  Anything  which  produces  an 
increase  of  action  in  the  system  or  any  part  of  it,  66,  154,  183. 

Stom'ach  (Greek,  stoma,  an  entrance).  The  receptacle  for  the  food, 
placed  between  the  lower  end  of  the  gullet  and  the  beginning  of  tlie 
intestines,  75,  80,  81. 

Sub  lin'gual  (Latin,  sub,  under,  and  lingua,  the  tongue).  Situated 
under  the  tongue.  SuUingual  glands,  two  salivary  glands  placed 
underneath  the  tongue,  79. 

Sub  max'il  la  ry  (Latin,  sub,  under,  and  mala,  jaw).  Situated  beneath 
the  jaw.  Submaxillary  glands,  two  salivary  glands  placed  under- 
neath the  lower  jaw,  79. 

Sut'ure  (Latin,  suere,  to  sew).  The  line  of  union  between  the  bones 
of  the  skull,  41,  42. 

Syn  o'vi  al  (Latin,  omun,  an  egg).  Relating  to  the  fluid  found  in 
joints.  Synovial  fluid,  the  fluid  secreted  in  joints  to  permit  of  easy 
motion.     It  is  formed  by  a  sac  known  as  the  synovial  membrane,  43, 

Sys'tem  (Latin,  systema).  A  collection  of  parts  of  the  body  performing 
the  same  function  ;  for  instance,  all  the  arteries  of  the  body  taken 
collectively  are  known  as  the  arterial  system.  The  term  system  is 
also  used  to  denote  the  body  as  a  whole,  211. 

Tar'sus  (Greek,  tarsos,  the  ankle).  The  solid,  hind  part  of  the  foot 
which  is  joined  to  the  leg,  20,  22,  36. 

Tem'ple  (Latin,  teinpus,  time).  A  spot  on  the  side  of  the  head,  just  in 
front  of  the  ear,  so  called  because  the  hair  begins  to  turn  gray  in 
this  situation,  at  the  approach  of  age,  28. 

Tempo  ral  (Latin,  te??ipus,  time).     Pertaining  to  the  temple,  28,  29,  55. 

Ten'don  (Latin,  tendere,  to  stretch).  The  strong,  fibrous  part  of  a  mus- 
cle by  which  it  is  attached  to  surrounding  parts,  especially  bone,  48. 

Ther  mom'e  ter  (Greek,  thermos,  hot,  and  metron,  measure).  An  in- 
strument used  to  measure  the  intensity  of  heat,  146. 

Thigh.  The  thick,  fleshy  portion  of  the  lower  extremity,  between  the 
lower  end  of  the  trunk  and  the  knee,  17,  18. 

Tho'rax  (Greek,  thorax,  a  breast-plate).     The  chest,  18,  20,  22,  33. 

Thumb.     The  short,  thick  finger  ;  the  first  from  the  outer  side,  18,  22. 


278  GLOSSARY. 

Tib  I A  (Latin).     The  inner  bone  of  the  leg,  20,  22,  36. 

Tis'suE  (Latin,  texere,  to  weave).  A  form  of  material  of  the  body, 
comiDOsed  of  various  elementary  substances,  such  as  cells,  fibres, 
nerves,  blood-vessels,  etc.,  closely  connected  with  each  other,  15. 

To  BAc'co  (Indian,  iahaco^  the  tube,  or  pipe,  in  which  the  Indians  smoked 
tobacco).  A  plant  much  used  for  smoking,  chewing,  and  snuffing, 
117, 194. 

Tra'che  a  (Greek,  irachvs,  rough).  The  windpipe ;  the  canal  which 
conveys  air  to  the  lungs,  126,  129,  132. 

Train  (Latin,  trahere,  to  draw).  To  prepare  the  body  for  extraordi- 
nary feats  of  strength  or  endurance,  58,  178. 

Tri'ceps  (Latin,  iria,  three,  and  cainit,  head).  The  large  muscle  on  the 
back  of  the  arm  ;  so  called  because  it  is  formed  above  of  three  por- 
tions, 53,  55. 

Trunk  (Latin,  truncus,  trunk).  The  central  part  of  the  body,  to  w^hich 
head  and  limbs  are  attached,  18. 

Tu'bule  (Latin,  tubus,  a  pipe).     A  small  tube,  82,  83. 

Ul'na  (Latin,  ulna,  elbow).     The  inner  bone  of  the  forearm,  20,  22,  34. 

Valve  (Latin,  valva,  a  folding-door).     A  lid  or  cover  so  formed  as  to 

open  in  one  direction  and  close  in  the  other,  111,  112. 
Ve'ge  ta  ble  (Latin,  vegetare,  to  enliven).     Relating  to  plants,  64,  66. 
Vein  (Latin,   mna,   vein).     One   of  the  blood-vessels  which  receives 

blood  from  the  capillaries  and  returns  it  to  the  heart,  99,  112,  113. 
Venti  la'tion  (Latin,  vetitulus,  a  slight  wind).     The  act  of  removal  of 

impure  air  and  admission  of  pure  air,  135. 
Ven'tri  cles  (Latin,  veniriculus,  dim.  of  Tenter,  the  belly).     The  two 

lower  and  larger  cavities  of  the  heart,  107,  108. 
Ver'te  bra  (Latin,  vertere,  to  turn).     One  of  the  bones  which  make  up 

the  spine  or  backbone,  31. 
Vit're  ous  (Latin,  ntrum,  glass).     Like   glass.     Vitreous  humor,  the 

transparent,  jelly-like  substance  which  fills  the  eyeball,  behind  the 

lens,  251. 
Vo'cAL  (Latin,  tox,  voice).     Relating  to  the  voice-sounds  ;  vocal  cords, 

the  bands  of  membrane  existing  in  the  larynx,  which  produce  the 

voice-sounds  by  their  vibration,  127,  128,  129. 
Vol'un  ta  ry  (Latin,  voluntas,  will).  Produced  by  an  act  of  the  will,  49. 

Wind'pipe.     The  passage  by  which  air  reaches  the  lungs.     The  trachea, 

126,  129,  132. 
Yeast.     A  substance  added  to  starchy  or  sugary  liquids  to  produce 

fermentation,  67,  160, 161. 


IISTDEX. 


Abdomen,  17,  18,  34,  2G6 
Absinthe,  166,  205 

habit,  205 
Absorption,  91,  266 
Acetous  fermentation,  162 
Achilles,  tendon  of,  56 
Adam's  apple,  126,  266 
Air,  102 
changes  produced  in,  by  breath- 
ing, 134,  135 
impure,  effects  of,  185 
purification  of,  135 
Air-passages,  129,  130,  243 
Air-spaces,  182 
Air-vesicles,  132 
Alcohol,  156,  162,  164,  194,  266 
and  crime,  181 
and  digestion,  93,  169 
and  the  expectancy  of  life,  179 
as  a  food,  169 
as  a  medicine,  168 
discovery  of,  156 
effects  of,  on  arteries,  117,  173 
on  the  brain,  174 
on  the  circulation,  116,  173 
on  the  heart,  116,  172 
on  the  heat  of  the  body,  176 
on  the  intestines,  170 
on  the  liver,  90,  170 
on  the  lungs,  178 
on  the  muscles,  57,  171,  177 
on  the  nerves,  175 
on  the  nervous  system,  174 


Alcohol,  effects  of,  on  the  power 
to  resist  disease,  178 
on  the  power  to  recover  from 

accidents,  178 
on  the  sight,  176 
on  the  skeleton,  26,  172 
on  the  spinal  cord,  174 
on  the  stomach,  84,  98,  169 
on  the  system,  167 
on  the  tissues,  169 
on  training,  178 
habit,  180 

cost  of,  181 
lamps,  157 
manufacture  of,  158 
moral  effects  of,  168,  180 
properties  of,  157 
questions  on,  190 
synopsis  of,  185 
uses  of,  157 
Alcoholic  drinks,  156,  163 
effects  of,  on  system,  167 
manufacture  of,  165 
moral  effects  of,  180 
varieties  of,  164 
Alcoholic  fermentation,  162 
Ales,  165 

Alimentary  canal,  74,  75,  266 
Anatomy,  13,  266 
Animals    and    plants,    differences 
between,  15,  64 
similarity  in  structure  of,  211 
Animals,  carnivorous,  64 


280 


INDEX. 


Animals,  difference  in  food  of,  64 

herbivorous,  64 

warm-blooded  and  cold-blooded, 
146 
Ankle,  17,  18 

bones  of,  20 
Anvil,  360,  261 
Aorta,  111,  112,266 
Apoplexy,  117,  173 
Apple,  Adam's,  126,  266 
Aqueous  humor  of  eye,  250,  251, 

267 
Arch  of  foot,  17,  18,  36 
Arm,  17,  18 

bone  of,  20,  22,  34 
Arm-pit,  17,  18 
Arrack,  166 
Arteries,  99,  112,  267 

effects  of  alcohol  on,  117 
Artery,  p\ilraonary,  109 
Auricles  of  heart,  108,  267 

Backbone,  31 

Ball-and-socket  joint,  44 
Bathing,  288 

after  meals,  92 
Baths,  cold,  238 

Russian,  238 

Turkish.  238 

warm,  237 
Beats  of  heart,  108 
Beef,  67 
Beers,  164,  165 
Beings,  living,  14 
Biceps,  51,  53,  54,  55,  267 
Bicuspid  teeth,  77,  267 
Bile,  89,  171 

action  of,  89 
Birds,  blood  of,  102 
Bitters,  167 
Bleeding,  115 


Bleeding,  treatment  of,  115,  116 
Blindness,  176,  198 
Blood  and  circulation,  100 

questions  on,  122 

synopsis  of,  119 
Blood  and  tissues,  changes  in,  pro- 
duced by  breathing,  134 
Blood,  appearance  of,  100 

clotting  of,  104 

color  of,  100 

composition  of,  100 

course  of,  108, 109,  110 

difference  between,    in  arteries 
and  in  veins,  100,  103 

importance  of,  100 

purification  of,  110 

serum  of,  104 
Blood-clots,  value  of,  104 
Blood-corpuscles,  100 
Blood-globules,  100,  101 

red,  101 
use  of,  102 

white,  101 
Blood-heat,  146 
Blood  of  other  animals,  102 
Blood-plasma,  100,  102 
Blood-vessels,  99,  112 
Body,  parts  of,  15, 16,  17 

subdivisions  of,  15,  16,  17 
Body-heat,  143,  146 

in  sickness,  147 

regulation  of,  147 
Bone,  composition  of,  24 

structure  of,  24 
Bones,  forms  of,  23 

number  of,  23 

uses  of,  21 

of  the  cranium,  27 

of  the  ear,  260 

of  the  face,  27,  28 

of  the  head,  27 


INDEX. 


281 


Bones  of  the  lower  limbs,  35 

of  the  skull,  27 

of  the  trunk,  30 

of  the  upper  limbs,  34 
Bowels,  75,  85,  267 
Brain,  218,  215,  216,  217,  221 

coverings  of,  215 

divisions  of,  217,  221 

effects  of  alcohol  on  the,  174 

functions  of,  220 

size  of,  215 

training  of,  220 

weight  of,  215 
Brandy,  166 
Bread,  67,  161 

Breast-bone,  20,  22,  30,  32,  34 
Breathing  and  smelling  channels, 

243 
Breathing,  changes  which  it  pro- 
duces in  blood  and  tissues, 
'   134 

changes  which  it  produces  in  the 
air,  134 

effect  of   tight    clothing  upon, 
138 

frequency  of,  133 

involuntary  nature  of,  133 

movements  of  chest  in,  133 

mouth,  133 

organs  of,  125 
synopsis  of,  139 
questions  on,  141 
Bridge  of  nose,  17 
Bronchi,  126,  130,  132,  267 
Bronchial  tubes,  126,  130,  132,  267 
Bronchus,  left,  130,  132 

right,  130,  132 
Brows,  249,  250 
Bunion,  25,  267 
Burning  of  fuel,  results  of,  144 
Butter,  66,  67 


Caffein,  282 
Calf  of  leg,  17 
Canal,  alimentary,  74,  75 

of  ear,  259,  260 

from  liver  and  gall-bladder,  87 

from  pancreas,  88 

spinal,  30,  31 
Canine  teeth,  77,  267 
Capillaries,  110,  112,  113,  267 
Capsular  ligaments,  43,  44,  267 
Carbonic-acid  gas,  103,   110,    134, 

135,  159,  267 
Care  of  circulation,  116 

of  ears,  263 

of  eyes,  255 

of  hair,  240 

of  muscles,  56 

of  nails,  240 

of  skin,  180 

of  teeth,  78 
Carnivorous  animals,  64,  268 
Carpus,  20,  22,  35,  268 
Cartilage,  25,  43,  46,  268 
Casting  off  refuse  materials,  145 
Cavities  of  heart,  107 
Cells,  16,  268 

of  brain,  219 

of  liver,  89 

of  stomach,  82 
Cerebellum,  217,  218,  219,  221,  268 
Cerebrum,  217,  218,  219,  221,  268 

gray  and  white  portions  of,  218 

hemispheres  of,  216,  218 
Cheek,  17 

bone  of,  22 
Cheese,  68 
Chest,  17,  18,  20,  22,  33,  268 

deformed,  25,  138 

movements  of,  in  breathing,  133 

muscle  of,  55 
Chewing-gum,  effects  of,  79,  92 


282 


INDEX. 


Chin,  17 
Chloral,  204,  268 

habit,  205 

hydrate,  204 
Chloroform,  206 

habit,  206 
Chocolate,  66,  182,  183 
Choroid  coat  of  eye,  250,  253,  268 
Cider,  162,  164,  165 
Cigarette  smoking,  199 
Circulation,  100,  105,  110,  268 

and  exercise,  116 

care  of,  116 

course  of,  109,  110 

discovery  of,  108 

effects  of  alcohol  on,  116,  173 

effects  of  tobacco  on,  117 

rapidity  of,  114 

through  lungs,  109,  110 
Clavicle,  20,  22,  30,  32,  34,  227 
Clot,  104,  268 
Clothing,  147,  148,  239 

v^oollen,  147 
Clotting  of  blood,  104 
Coats  of  eye,  250 

of  intestines,  85 

of  stomach,  80 
Coca  leaves,  184 

wine  of,  185 
Cocaine,  184 

habit,  185 
Coccyx,  31 
Cocoa,  182,  183 
Coffee,  66,  154,  182 

effects  of,  182 

effects  of,   on   nervous  system, 
183 

injurious  effects  of,  155 
Cold-blooded  animals,  146 
Cold,  effects  of,  149 

in  head,  245 


Collar-bone,  20,  22,  30,  32,  34 
Color  of  hair,  237 

of  skin,  234 
Column,  spinal,  30 
Combination  of  all  forms  of  food, 

necessity  for,  in  man,  66 
Combustion,  143,  268 
Contraction  of  muscles,  51 
Cooking,  methods  of,  68 
Cool,  keeping,  in  summer,  148 
Cord,  spinal,  31,  52,  214,  221,  222 

effects  of  alcohol  on,  174 

functions  of,  223 

injuries  to,  222 

membranes  of,  222 

structure  of,  222 
Cordials,  164,  167 
Cords,  vocal,  127,  128,  129 
Cornea,  250,  269 
Corns,  25,  268 
Coronal  suture,  42,  269 
Corpuscles,  blood,  100,  269 
Cosmetics,  239,  269 
Course  of  blood,  108 

of  inspired  air,  125 
Cranial  nerves,  219,  269 
Cranium,  bones  of,  27,  269 
method  of  union,  28,  29 
Cream,  67 
Cross-eye,  252 
Crown  of  head,  16,  269 

of  tooth,  76 
Crystalline,  250,  251,  269 

Dandruff,  234,  269 
Deaf-mutes,  262,  269 
Deformed  chest,  25,  138 

foot,  26 
Delirium  tremens,  176,  269 
Dentine,  76,  269 
Diaphragm,  34,  56, 269 


INDEX. 


283 


Digestion,  74,  91,  269 

and  excitement,  92 

effects  of  alcohol  upon,  93 

effects  of  tobacco  on,  93 

habits  which  are  injurious  to,  92 

of  fatty  food,  87,  91 

of  fleshy  food,  82,  87,  91 

of  starchy  food,  79,  87,  91 

organs  of,  74,  75 

questions  on,  97 

synopsis  of,  93 
Dipsomania,  181 

Discovery  of  action  of  the  stom- 
ach, 84 

of  circulation,  108 
Dislocations,  44,  269 
Distillation,  163 
Distilled  spirits,  163,  164 
Dover's  powder,  202 
Dress,  effect  of,  on  skeleton,  25 
Drinking-water,  69 

from  wells,  69 

impure  or  poisoned,  69 

poisoning  by  lead,  71 

purification  of,  70 

purity  of,  69 
Drinks,  alcoholic,  156,  163, 164 

effects  of,  167 

non-alcoliolic,  157 
Drum  of  ear,  259,  260 
Drum  membrane  of  ear,  260,  262, 

269 
Drunkenness,  175 
Duct,  nasal,  254,  255,  269 

tear-,  254,  255 
Duodenum,  75,  85,  270 
Dyspepsia,  78,  170,  270 

Ear,  bones  of,  260 
canal  of,  259,  260 
care  of,  263 


Ear,  communication  with  throat 
260 

drum  of,  260,  262 

drum-membrane  of,  259,  268 

internal,  261 

middle,  259 

outer,  259 

parts  of,  259 

questions  on,  264 

synopsis  of,  263 
Ear-wax,  259,  263 
Easily  digested  food,  84 
Eating  excessively,  93 

quickly,  92 
Eggs,  68 
Elbow,  17,  18 
Elbow-joint,  22 
Elixirs,  167 

Enamel  of  tooth,  76,  270 
Epidemics,  70,  270 
Epiglottis,  127,  248,  270 
Eustachian  tube,  261,  270 
Excessive  eating,  92 
Excitement  and  digestion,  92 
Eye,  232,  249,  250 

care  of,  255 

choroid  coat  of,  250,  253 

coats  of,  250 

effects  of  alcohol  on,  176 

fluids  of,  250,  251 

good  light  for,  255 

humors  of,  250,  251 

interior  of,  250,  251,  254 

lens  of,  250,  251 

muscles  of,  252 

nerve  of,  250,  251,  253 

nerve-coat  of,  250,  251,  253 

parts  of,  250 

protections  to,  249 

pupil  of,  250,  251 

questions  on,  258 


284 


INDEX. 


Eye,  resemblance  of,  to  pliotogra- 
pher's  camera,  252 

rest  for,  255 

sclerotic  coat  of,  250 

synopsis  of,  257 
Eyebrows,  249,  250 
Eyelashes,  249,  250 
Eyelids,  249,  250 
Eye-tooth,  77 
Exercise,  56,  57,  239 

and  muscles,  56 

and  the  circulation,  116 

amount  of,  57 

forms  of,  57 

immediately  after  meals,  92 

necessity  for,  57 
Expression  of  the  face,  effect  of 

muscles  on,  53 
Expiration,  125,  128,  270 

Face,  16,  17 

bones  of,  27,  28 

expressions  of,  53 
Fainting,  114,  270 

treatment  of,  115 
Fang  of  tooth,  76,  270 
Farinaceous  food,  64,  270 
Far-sightedness,  256,  270 
Fat,  48,  66 

digestion  of,  91 

uses  of,  49 
Fatty  food,  66 
Feet,  deformed,  25,  26 
Femur,  20,  22,  34,  36,  270 
Fermentation,  159,  162 
Fibres,  16,  47,  270 
Fibula,  20,  22,  35,  36,  270 
Filth,  results  of,  237 
Filters,  71 
Fingers,  18,  35 

bones  of,  20,  22 


Fingers,  names  of,  18 
Fish,  66 

Fishes,  blood  of,  102 
Flesh,  47,  229 
Fleshy  food,  64,  270 
digestion  of,  S3,  87,  91 
by  stomach,  83 
by  intestines,  87 
Fluid,  synovial,  43 
Fluids  of  the  eye,  250,  251 
Fly-trap,  Venus',  14 
Food  and  drink,  63,  154 
essential  to  life,  63 
questions  on,  72 
synopsis  of,  71 
Food  and  oxygen  produce  heat  and 

work,  144,  145 
Food  of  plants,  64 

and  animals,  difference  in,  64 
Food,  different  kinds  of,  required 
by  man,  64,  66 
easily  digested,  84 
farinaceous,  64 
fatty,  49,  66,  87 

digestion  of,  91 
fatty,  digestion  of,  in  small  in- 
testine, 87 
fleshy,  64 
digestion  of,  83,  87,  91 
digestion  of,  in  small  intestine, 
87 
heavy,  84 
indigestible,  84 
light,  84 

passage  for,  129,  130,  243 
proper,  68 
results   of  combustion   of,   144, 

145 
some  of  simplest  forms  of,  66 
starchy,  64 
digestion  of,  79,  87,  91 


INDEX. 


285 


Food,  digestion  of,  in  small  intes- 
tine, 87 

sugary,  66 

variety  in,  68 

vegetable,  64 
Foot,  17,  18,  26 

arch  of,  17,  18,  22 

bones  of,  20,  22,  35,  36 

instep  of,  17,  18 

sole  of,  17,  18 
Forearm,  17,  18 

bones  of,  20,  22,  34 
Forehead,  17,  22 
Fracture  of  bones,  25,  26,  270 
Frontal  bone,  22,  27,  29,  270 
Fuel,  results  of  burning  of,  144 
Function,  15,  211,  270 

Gall,  89,  270 
Gall-bladder,  75,  88,  89 

canal  from,  87 
Gas,  carbonic  acid,  103,  159 
Giistric  juice,  82,  271 

function  of,  83 
Gastric  tubules,  82,  83 
Gelatin,  24,  271 
Germs,  160 
Gin,  166 
Glands,  78,  271 

lachrymal,  254 

parotid,  78 

salivary,  78 

sublingual,  79 

submaxillary,  79 

tear,  254 
Gliding-joints,  43 
Globules,  blood,  100,  101 
Gout,  90,  271 
Granular  lids,  256,  271 
Green  vegetables,  66 
Gristle,  25,  43,  46,  259,  271 


Groin,  17,  18,  271 
Gullet,  75,  79,  80,  129,  271 
Gum-chewing,  79,  92 
effects  of,  79,  92 

Habit,  alcohol,  180 

absinthe,  205 

chloral,  204,  205 

chloroform,  206 

cocaine,  185 

hashish,  205 

morphine,  202 

opium,  202 

the  tobacco,  190,  197,  200 
Habits  which  are  injurious  to  di- 
gestion, 92 
Hair,  236 

care  of,  240 

color  of,  237 

parts  of,  236 

root  of,  236 
Hammer,  260 
Hand,  18,  20,  22,  35 
Hangnails,  240,  271 
Harvey,  108 
Hashish,  205 

habit,  205 
Head,  16,  17 

bones  of,  27 

cold  in,  245 
Hearing,  manner  of,  262 

nerve  of,  261 

questions  on,  264 

sense  of,  263 

synopsis  of,  263 
Heart,  106,  107,  109 

auricles  of,  108 

beats  of,  108 

cavities  of,  107 

effects  of  alcohol  on,  116,  172 

effects  of  tobacco  on,  117, 198 


286 


INDEX. 


Heart  failure,  172 

form  of,  107 

function  of,  108 

palpitation  of,  117,  198 

situation  of,  106 

tobacco,  198 

valves  of.  111,  113 

ventricles  of,  108 
Heart    and    blood  -  vessels,     100, 
106 

questions  on,  122 

synopsis  of,  119 
Heart-beats,  frequency  of,  108 
Heat  and  work,  the  result  of  food 

and  oxygen,  145 
Heat,  blood,  146 

of  skia,  146 

of  the  body,  143,  146 
in  sickness,  147 
regulation  of,  147,  338,  235 
regulation  of,  by  the  skin,  148, 
233,  235 

questions  on,  151 

synopsis  of,  150 
Heavy  food,  84 
Heel,  17,  22,  36 
Hemispheres   of  cerebrum,     218, 

271 
Hemorrhage,  116,  271 
Herbivorous  animals,  64,  371 
Hinge-joints,  43 
Hip,  17,  18,  271 
Hip-bones,  20,  22,  30,  33 
Hip-joint,  22 
Home-made  wines,  166 
Hops,  165 

Humerus,  20,  22,  34,  371 
Humor,  aqueous,  350,  251,  271 

vitreous,  250,  251 
Humors  of  the  eye,  250,  351 
Hygiene,  13,  371 


Ice-water,  93,  149 
Images,  353 
Important  muscles,  55 
Impure  air,  effects  of,  135 
Incisor  teeth,  77,  371 
Index-finger,  18,  33,  373 
Indigestible  food,  84,  373 
Indigestion,  78,  93,  373 
Injurious  habits  to  digestion,  92 
Insensible  perspiration,  235 
Inspiration,  125,  127,  272 
Inspired  air,  course  of,  125,  273 
Instep  of  foot,  17,  18,  36,  372 
Insurance,  life,  179 
Intellect,  330 
Intelligence,  330,  373 
Internal  ear,  361 
Intestines,  75,  85,  372 

attachments  of,  85 

coats  of,  85 

effects  of  alcohol  on  the,  170 

large,  75,  85 

motions  of,  86 

projections  from  inner  surface 
of,  86,  87 

small,  75,  85 
openings  into,  87 

subdivisions  of,  85 

work  of,  86,  145 
Intoxication,  156,  175 
Introduction,  13 

questions  on,  19 

synopsis  of,  18 
Involuntary  muscles,  50,  373 
Involuntary  nature  of  breathing, 

133 
Iris,  350,  351,  373 

Jaundice,  89,  373 
Jaw,  lower,  33,  39,  30 
upper,  33,  39,  30 


I 


INDEX. 


287 


Joints,  41,  43,  43,  44,  273 

accidents  to,  44 

ball-and-socket,  44 

classes  of,  41 

gliding,  43 

hinge,  43 

immovable,  41,  43 

movable,  41,  43,  43 

pivot,  44 

questions  on,  45 

slightly  movable,  41,  43 

synopsis  of,  45 

varieties  of,  43 
Judgment,  330,  373 
Juice,  gastric,  83 
function  of,  83 

pancreatic,  90 

Kidneys,  145,  373 
Knee,  17,  18 
Knee-pan,  30,  23,  35,  36 

Lachrymal  boxe,  39,  373 

duct,  254,  355,  373 

gland,  354,  373 
Lacteals,  91,  118,  119,  373 
Lambdoid  suture,  43,  373 
Large  intestine,  75,  85 
Larynx,  135,  126,  133,  373 

form  of,  135 

parts  of,  135 

situation  of,  135 
Lashes,  249,  250 
Laudanum,  200 
Lead  in  drinking-water,  71 
Leaf,  skeleton  of,  313 
Lean,  48,  373 
Leg,  17,  18 

bones  of,  30,  23,  35,  36 
Lens  of  the  eye,  350,  351,  273 
Lids,  249,  350 

granular,  356 


Life  insurance,  179 
Ligaments,  43,  46,  373 

capsular,  43 
Light  food,  84 
Light  in  reading,  255 
Limbs,  18,  273 

lower,  18 

upper,  18 
Liquors,  163,  164,  166 
Little  finger,  18,  273 
Liver,  75,  88 

cells,  89 

drunkard's,  90,  171 

effects  of  alcohol  on  the,  171 

lobes  of,  89 

unhealthy,  90,  171 

uses  of,  89,  171 

and  gall-bladder,  canal  from,  87 
Living  beings,  14 
Lobes  of  the  liver,  89 
Lower  jaw,  23,  29,  30 
Lungs,  130,  132,  145,  149,  373 

circulation  through,  109,  110 

effects  of  tobacco  on,  138 

shape  of,  130 

structure,  131 
Lymph,  117,  118,  373 
Lymphatics,  117,  118,  373 

Malar  boxe,  23,  29,  30,  273 

Malt,  165,  273 

Malt  liquors,  164,  165 

Marrow,  24,  273 

Meat,  64,  66 

Medulla,  217,  218,  219,  221,  274 

Membrane,  mucous,  81 

synovial,  43 
Membranes  of  brain,  215 
^lembranes  of  spinal  cord,  222 
3remory,  220 
Metacarpus,  20,  22,  35,  274 


288 


INDEX. 


Metatarsus,  20,  22,  36,  274 
Methods  of  cooking,  68 
Microscope,  101,  274 
Middle  ear,  259 
Middle  finger,  18,  274 
Milk,  67,  91 
appearance  of,  under  the  micro- 
scope, 67 

composition  of,  67 

skimmed,  68 

source  of,  67 

teeth,  74 
Mind,  220 
Mixed  muscles,  50 
Moisture,  effects  upon  heat,  149 
Molar  teeth,  77,  274 
Morphine,  201,  202,  274 

habit,  202 
Motion,  nerves  of,  223 
Mouth,  74,  75 
Mouth-breathing,  133 
Mucus,  82,  274 

Mucous  membrane,  81,  86,  274 
Multiple   stomachs  in   some    ani- 
mals, 84 
Muscles,  46,  274 

action  of,  51 

and  exercise,  56 

belly  of,  48 

biceps,  51,  53,  54,  55 

care  of,  56 

chest,  55 

contraction  of,  51 

effects  of  alcohol  on,  57,  171 

effects  of  tobacco  on,  57 

exercise  of,  56 

functions  of,  47 

groups  of,  53 

importance  of,  55 

influence  of  nervous  system  on 
action  of,  52 


Muscles,  number  of,  54 

of  eye,  251 

of  face,  53 

paralyzed,  53 

pectoralis,  54,  55 

questions  on,  61 

shape  of,  54 

size  of,  55 

synopsis  of,  59 

temporal,  55 

triceps,  53,  55 
Muscle-fibres,  47,  86 
Muscle-tendons,  48 
Muscle-tissue,  47,  82,  247 

involuntary,  50 

kinds  of,  49 

mixed,  50 

voluntary,  49 
Muscular  movements,  complex,  53 
Mute,  deaf-,  262 

Nails,  237 

care  of,  240 
Narcotics,  194,  202,  274 
Nasal,  274 

bone,  22,  29,  30 

duct,  254,  255 
Near-sightedness,  256,  274 
Neck,  16,  20,  22 

of  tooth,  76 
Nerves,  52,  210,  214,  219,  223;  274 

cranial,  219,  222 

effects  of  alcohol  on,  175 

kinds  of,  223 

of  eyes,  250,  253 

of  hearing,  261 

of  motion,  223 

of  sensation,  223 

of  smell,  244,  245 

optic,  250,  253 

spinal,  231,  223 


INDEX. 


289 


Nerves,  sympathetic,  226 
Nervous  system,  210,  211,  221 

absence  of,  in  plants,  212 

actions  of,  214 

divisions  of,  213,  221 

effects  of  alcohol  on,  174 

effects  of  coffee  on,  226 

effects  of  tea  on,  226 

effects  of  to])acco  on,  226 

functions  of,  213 

most  perfect  in  man,  213 

questions  on,  230 

rapidity  of  action  of,  215 

sympathetic,  226 

synopsis  of,  227 
Nervousness,  183,  198 
Nicotine,  196 
Nitrogen,  102,  274 
Nose,  232,  243 

bone  of,  22,  244 

bridge  of,  17,  244 

function  of,  243 

parts  of,  244 

questions  on,  247 

synopsis  of,  247 
Nostrils,  244,  274 

Occipital  bone,  27,  29,  275 

Occiput,  20,  22,  275 

Oculist,  253,  275 

(Esophagus,  75,  79,  80,  129,  275 

Oil-tubes,  236 

Old-sight,  257 

Openings  into  small  intestine,  87 

Opiates,  200 

Opium,  200,  202 

habit,  202 
Optic,  275 

nerve,  250,  253 
Orbits,  30,  249,  275 
Organ,  15,  275 


Outer  ear,  259 

Oxygen,  102,  110,   134,  135,    145, 

275 

Palm  of  hand,  18,  35 

Palpitation  of  heart,  117 
Pancreas,  75,  90,  275 

canal  from,  88 
Pancreatic  juice,  90 

uses  of,  91 
Paralysis,  205,  275 
Paralyzed  muscles,  53,  275 
Paregoric,  202 
Parietal  bone,  27,  29,  275 

suture,  42 
Parotid  gland,  78,  275 
Passage  for  air,  129,  130,  243 

for  food,  129,  130,  243 
Patella,  20,  22,  35,  36,  275 
Pectoralis  muscle,  54,  55,  275 
Pelvis,  22,  32,  275 
Pepsin,  83,  275 
Perfume,  246 
Pericardium,  107,  276 
Periosteum,  24,  276 
Peritoneum,  81,  86,  276 
Permanent  teeth,  75 
Perspiration,  149,  235,  276 

insensible,  235 

sensible,  235 

uses  of,  236 
Perspiration  tubes,  235 
Phalanges,  20,  22,  35,  36,  276 
Pharynx,  75,  276 
Physiology,  13,  276 
Pivot-joints,  44 

Plants,  absence  of  nervous  system 
in,  212 

food  of,  64 

life  in,  14 

life  and  growth  of,  135 


290 


IXDEX, 


Plants  and  animals,  difference  be- 
tween, 15,  135 

difference  in  the  food  of,  15,  64, 
135 

similarity  in  structure  of,  212 
Plasma  of    the    blood,    100,   103, 
276 

uses  of,  103 
Pleura,  133,  145,  276 
Pneumonia,  173,  178 
Poppy  plaut,  200 
Pores,  145,  149,  238,  276 
Porter,  165 
Powder,  Dover's,  202 
Projections    on    inner  surface  of 

small  intestine,  86,  87 
Proper  food,  68 
Protection  of  windpipe,  127 
Pulmonary  artery,  109,  276 
Pulp  of  tooth,  76,  276 
Pulse,  113 

Pupil  of  eye,  250,  251,  276 
Purification  of  the  air,  135 

of  blood,  110 

of  drinking-water,  70 
Pylorus,  75,  80,  85,  276 

Radius,  20,  22,  34.  .276 
Reading,  precautions  in,  255,  256 
Reasonr220,  276 
Red  blood-globules,  101 

use  of,  102 
Reflex  action,  223,  276 
Refuse  materials,  144.  145 
Reptiles,  blood  of,  102 
Respiration,  125,  276 
Retina.  250,  251,  253,  277 
Ribs,  22,  30,  33.  277 
Ring  finger,  18,  277 
Root  of  hair,  236 

of  tooth,  76 


Rum,  163,  166 
Russian  baths,  239 

Sacrum,  20 

Sagittal  suture,  42.  277 

SaHva,  78,  247,  277 

uses  of,  79 
Salivary  glands,  78,  277 
Sap,  212 
Scalp,  17,  277 
Scapula,  20,  22,  32,  277 
Scarf-skin,  234,  277 
Scents,  sweet,  246,  277 
Sclerotic  coat  of  the  eye,  250,  277 
Sensation,  organ  of,  232,  277 

nerves  of,  223,  233 
Senses,  232.  277 

special,  232 
Sense  of  hearing,  232,  259 

of  sight,  232,  249 

of  smell,  232,  243 

of  taste,  232,  247 

of  touch,  232 
Sensible  perspiration,  149,  235 
Serum  of  blood,  104 
Shoes,  improper,  25,  26 
Shoulder,  17,  18 

Shoulder-blade,  20,  22,  30,  32,  34 
Sight,  effects  of  alcohol  on,  176 

old,  257 

organ  of,  249 

sense  of,  232,  249 
questions  on,  258 
synopsis  of,  257 

weak,  256 
Skeleton,  20,  21,  22,  47,  277 

care  of,  25 

front  view  of,  20 

of  leaf,  212 

parts  of,  27 

position  of,  21 


INDEX. 


291 


Skeleton,  questions  on,  39 

side  view  of,  22 

synopsis  of,  37 
Skimmed  milk,  68 
Skin,  232 

a  means  of  regulating  the  body- 
heat,  149,  233,  235 

as  the  organ  of  sensation,  232 

attachments  of,  235 

care  of,  237 

color  of,  234 

heat  of,  146 

necessity  for,  232 

questions  on,  242 

scarf,  234 

structure  of,  234 

synopsis  of,  241 

thickness  of,  232 

throwing  off  water,   salts,    and 
poisonous  matters,  145,  233 

true,  234 

uses  of,  145, 149,  233 
Skull,  27,  28,  277 

bones  of,  29 
Sleep,  224 

amount  of,  224 

children's,  224 

uses  of,  224 

time  for,  224 
Sleeplessness,  225 
Small  intestine,  75,  85 
Smell,  nerves  of,  244,  245 

sense  of,  232,  243 
in  lower  animals,  244 
questions  on,  247 
synopsis  of,  246 
uses  of,  245 
Smelling  and  breathing  channels, 

243 
Smokers'  sore-throat,  138,  198 
Sole  of  foot,  17,  18,  36,  277 


Sound,  128,  261 

Sounds,  production  of,  128,  261 

Spaces,  air,  132 

Speaking,  129,  248 

Special  senses,  232,  277 

Sphenoid  bone,  29 

Spinal,  277 

canal,  31 

column,  22,  30,  31 

cord,  31,  214,  221,  222 

nerves,  221,  222 
Spine,  31 
Spirit,  157,  164 
Spleen,  75,  93,  278 
Squint,  252,  278 
Starch,  64,  65,  158,  161 

digestion  of,  79,  87,  91 
Starchy  food,  64 

digestion  of,  79,  87,  91 
Sternum,  20,  22,  32,  34,  278 
Still,  163 

Stimulant,  ij(j,  154,  183 
Stimulants,  154 

questions  on,  190 

synopsis  of,  185 
Stirrup,  260 
Stomach.  75.  80.81,278 

discovery  of  mode  of  action  of, 
84 

effects  of  alcohol  on,  84,  93,  169 

effects  of  tobacco  on,  84 

form  of,  75,  80 

multiple  in  some  animals,  84 

openings  in,  80 

structure  of,  80,  81 

uses  of,  83 
Stout,  165 

Sublingual  gland,  79,  278 
Submaxillary  gland,  79,  278 
Sugar,  65,  158 
Sugary  food,  65 


292 


INDEX. 


Summer,  keeping  cool  in,  148 
Sunstroke,  149 
Suture,  coronal,  43,  278 

lambdoid,  42 

parietal,  42 

sagittal,  42 
Sutures,  41,  42 
Sweetbread,  90 
Sweet  scents,  246 
Sympathetic    system    of    nerves, 

226 
Synovial  fluid,  43,  278 

membrane,  43 
System,  222,  278 

Tarsus,  20,  22,  36,  278 
Taste,  sense  of,  232,  247 

abuse  of,  248 

questions  on,  249 

synopsis  of,  249 
Tea,  66,  154, 182,  183 

effects  of,  183 

injurious  effects  of,  155,  183 
Tear-duct,  254,  255 
Tear-gland,  254 
Tear-sac,  254,  255 
Tears,  254 
Teeth,  74,  76,  77 

bicuspid,  77 

canine,  77 

care  of,  78 

crown  of,  76,  77 

fang  of,  76,  77 

incisor,  77 

milk,  74 

molar,  77 

names  of,  77 

neck  of,  76,  77 

number  of,  74,  75 

parts  of,  76,  77 

permanent,  75,  77 


Teeth,  root  of,  76,  77 
structure  of,  76 
temporary,  74 
uses  of,  77 
wisdom,  76 
Temple,  28,  278 
Temporal  bone,  28,  29,  278 

muscle,  55 
Temporary  teeth,  74 
Tendon  of  Achilles,  56,  278 
Tendons,  48 
Thein,  182 
Theobromin,  182 
Thermometer,  146,  158 
Thigh,  17,  18,  278 
Thigh-bone,  20,  22,  35,  36 
Thorax,  18,  20,  22,  33,  278 
Thought,  220 
Throat,  74,  79 
communication  with  the  middle 

ear,  260 
effects  of  tobacco  on,  198 
Thumb,  18,  22,  278 
Tibia,  20,  22,  35,  36,  279 
Tight     clothing,    effects    of,    on 

breathing,  25,  138 
Tinctures,  158 
Tobacco,  117,  194 
blindness,  198 
composition  of,  196 
cultivation  and  preparation  of, 

195,  196 
effects  on  circulation,  117,  198 
on  digestion,  93,  197 
on  heart,  117,  198 
on  lungs,  138,  198 
on  muscles,  57,  199 
on  nervous  system,  198 
on  sight,  198 
on  skeleton,  27,  198,  199 
on  system,  196 


INDEX. 


293 


Tobacco,  effects  on  the  power  of 
endurance,  199 
on  the  young,  198,  199 
on  throat,  198 

habit,  196,  197 

heart,  117,  198 

history  of,  195 

injurious  effects  of,  197 

nervousness,  198 

oil  of,  196 

poisoning,  197 
Toes,  bones  of,  20,  23,  36 
Tongue,  80,  232,  247,  248 

questions  on,  249 

structure  of,  247 

synopsis  of,  249 

uses  of,  247 
Tonics,  154,  167 
Touch,  organ  of,  232 

sense  of,  232 
questions  on,  242 
synopsis  of,  241 
Trachea,  125,  126,  129,  132,  279 
Training,  58, 178 

of  brain,  220 
Triceps  muscle,  53,  55,  279 
True  skin,  234 
Trunk,  18,  279 

bones  of,  30 

cavities  of,  18 
Tube,  bronchial,  126,  130,  132 

Eustachian,  261 
Tubes,  oil,  236 

perspiration,  235 
Tubule,  82,  279 
Tubules,  gastric,  82,  83 
Turkish  baths,  239 

Ulda,  20,  23,  84,  279 

TJNcleanliness,  results  of,  237 
Upper  jaw,  22,  29,  30 


Valve,  111,  279 
Valves  of  heart,  111,  112 

of  veins,  114 
Varnishes,  158 
Vegetable  food,  64,  66,  279 
Vegetables,  green,  66 
Veins,  99,  112,  113,  279 

valves  of,  114 
Ventilation,  135,  279 
Ventricles  of  heart,  108,  279 
Venus'  fly-trap,  14 
Vertebras  31,  279 

union  of,  31 
Vesicles,  air,  132 
Vinegar,  162,  165 
Vinous  fermentation,  162 
Vitreous,  250,  251,  279 

humor  of  eye,  250,  251 
Vocal  cords,  127,  128,  129,  279 
Voice,  production  of,  128 

organ  of,  questions  on,  141 
synopsis  of,  139 
Voluntary  muscles,  49,  279 

Wakefulness,  225 
Warm-blooded  animals,  146 
Warmth  in  winter,  148 
Water,  66,  69 

ice-,  92,  149 

drinking-,  69 

of  rivers,  70 
Wax  of  ear,  259,  263 
Weak-sight,  256 
AVhiskey,  166 
White  blood-globules,  101 
White  of  eye,  250 
Will,  220 

Wines,  163,  164,  165 
Windpipe,  125,  126,  129,  130,  279 

branches  of,  126,  130, 132 

form  of,  129,  132 


294 


INDEX. 


Windpipe,  protection  of,  127 
rings  of,  126,  130,  132 
situation  of,  129 

Winter,  keeping  warm  in,  148 

Wisdom-tooth,  76 

Woollen  clothing,  147 


Work  and  heat  the  results  of  food 

and  oxygen,  144,  145 
Wort,  165 
Wrist,  18,  20,  22,  35 

Yeast,  67,  160,  161,  279 


INDUCTIVE  METHODS  OF  TEACHING. 


ANATOMY    PHYSIOLOGY 


AND 


HYGIENE 

With    special    reference   to   the   effects    of 
stimulants   and    narcotics. 

FOR  USE  IN  PRIMARY  AND  INTERMEDIATE  SCHOOLS. 


BY 

CHARLES   H.  MAY,  M.D., 

Chief  of  Eye-Clinic  and  Instructor  in  Ophthalmology,  College  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons, 

Medical  Department,  Columbia  College,  N.  Y.;   Assistant  Surgeon  N.  Y.  Ophthalmic 

and  Aural  Institute  ;  Fellow  of  the  N.  Y.   Academy  of  Medicine,  etc. 

THIRD    EDITION,    REVISED   AND    ENLARGED. 


PROFUSELY    ILLUSTRATED    BY    ENGRAVINGS    IN    BLACK 
AND   COLORS. 

COPIES    WILL    BE    SENT    TO    TEACHERS,    ETC.,    FOR    EXAMINATION, 
AT    INTRODUCTION    RATES. 

WILLIAM  WOOD   &    COMPANY,  Publishers, 
NEW  YORK. 


A  TEXT-BOOK 


ON 


PHYSICS 


BEING   A   SHORT    AND    COMPLETE    COURSE 


BASED  UPON  THE  LARGER  WORK  OF  GANOT. 


For  the  Use  of  Academies,  High  Schools,  etc. 


BY 

HENRY   KIDDLE,  A.M., 

LATE    SUPERINTENDENT    OF    SCHOOLS,    NEW    YORK    CITY. 


Illxastrateci  by-  Ttiree  Colored   Folates  and  a  Large   ]M\amt»©r 

of  Woodouts. 


A  NEW  AND  IMPROVED  EDITION. 

WILLIAM   WOOD   &   COMPANY,  Publishers, 

NEW  YORK. 


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